Belur Chennakeshava Temple – Navaranga

Located in Belur, about 137 miles west of Bangalore in Karnataka, India, the Chennakeshava Temple is an architectural masterpiece and engineering marvel. Dedicated to Vishnu, it is one of the most beautiful temples in India, and with its unique style and features, it stands out from all the rest. Built by the Hoysalas in the 12th century, it is a shining example of their ingenuity and engineering skills.

Architecturally classified as a Mantapa style temple – a subclass under the southern Dravida style – the Belur Chennakeshava Temple consists of two main parts, garbhagriha and mantapa. Note that in Indian temples, the mantapa is a covered hall, and the garbhagriha (translated as womb chamber) is its inner sanctum, i.e., the chamber in which the principal deity of the temple resides. The Mantapa style temples can have more than one garbhagrihas. The Chennakeshava Temple has a single garbhagriha, and such temples with a single garbhagriha are known as ekakuta temples.

This page is about the mantapa in front of the garbhagriha, popularly known as the Navaranga because of the style of its design.

Check the following pages for information on other parts of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple:
– Belur Chennakeshava Temple – Bracket Figures
– Belur Chennakeshava Temple – Garbhagriha Outer Wall

Navaranga – Hoysala classic design

Although the Navaranga is relatively small, it is unique in many ways and its appearance, interior as well as exterior, is aesthetically pleasing. The layout of the Navaranga shown below highlights its architectural elements.

Note: The diagram is not drawn to scale. The bracket figures are represented by circles and given a number. The sections of the wall are also labeled to indicate their location. For example, S4 is the fourth section on the south side from the main entrance.

Navaranga Layout and the location of the Bracket Figures in the Chennakeshava Temple in Belur, Karnataka, India — Navaranga Layout and the location of the Bracket Figures

The temple is symmetrical about an east-west axis. In other words, the south-side layout is a mirror image of the north side (and vice versa).

As you can see from the diagram, there are three entrances, the main entrance to the temple is on the east side, and a side entrance each on the north and the south. There is no entrance on the west side because of the location of the garbhagriha.

Navaranga design

Navaranga is a unique element of Hoysala architecture. In Kannada, nava means nine, and ranga means stage or sector, Navaranga means nine sectors. Generally speaking, the Navaranga is a mantapa (covered hall) where people congregate before taking the darshana of the deity.

The Navaranga design is based on a simple geometrical principle of dividing a rectangular area into nine rectangular blocks by throwing a 3 x 3 grid over it. In Indian mythology, cosmic space has eight directions, four cardinal and four inter-cardinal. The blocks placed in eight different directions around the central block of the Navaranga symbolizes cosmic space as experienced by a human being. The builders of this temple tried to capture this concept in stone.

A mantapa built using the Navarnaga design has pillars at the corners of the central section of the 3 x 3 grid and a roof above those pillars to cover the entire space. There can be pillars at the corners of the rest of the sections to support that roof.

The Navaranga design has sub-elements that include sabhamantapa and mukhamantapa. The area covered by the central section (i.e., enclosed by the four middle pillars) is called the sabhamantapa and is typically the largest. The area covered by the sections facing the entrance is called the muhkamantapa. In architectural terms, the sabhamantapa is like a community hall, and the mukhamantapa is like a porch. In the Belur Chennakeshava Temple, the sabhamantapa is also the dance hall.

Exquisite interior

In the Chennakeshava Temple, the central section of the Navaranga is the dance floor, situated in the middle of the hall and enclosed by four pillars at its corners. Besides these four, there are other pillars, 48 in all, inside the Navaranga. Some support the roof, and others are there just for decorative purposes. These pillars have smoothly-cut circular grooves and are partly covered with artwork of beautiful patterns.

Pillars on the northwest side of Navaranga in the Belur Chennakeshava Temple, Karnataka, India — Pillars on the northwest side of the Navaranga

The image shows the pillars on the northwest side of the Navaranga. As you can see, each one is different in design. In fact, none of the 48 pillars inside the Navaranga are similar, except for the four at the corners of the dance floor.

These pillars are precisely cut, smooth and polished, and it appears as though they were made using sophisticated machinery, such as modern-day lathes. Because of their appearance, they are called lathe-turned pillars, although nobody is sure how they were built.

Among all the pillars in the Navaranga, the Mohini and Narasimha pillars are highly ornate and the most popular with the visitors.

Mohini pillar

This sculptural relief depicts Mohini, a female avatar of Vishnu, carved into a pillar located near the dance floor. This stunningly beautiful and intricately carved sculpture was made of black stone (locally known as Krishna Shile), unlike most of the sculptural reliefs, which were made of soft soapstone (locally known as Balapada Kallu).

Note: Moha means Infatuation or crush. Mohini means a seductress.

According to Hindu mythology, Mohini is a by-product of the Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk), which was a collaborative effort by devas (demigods) and asuras (demons) to produce amrita, the nectar of immortality. Once the churning produced amrita, asuras cleverly stole all of it. When Vishnu realized that asuras have amrita, he appeared as a beautiful young woman, a femme fatale, who enticed asuras and successfully grabbed amrita back from them and gave it to the devas.

As you can see from the image, Mohini has a slender and well-proportioned body. She is standing with a graceful stance, with her body slightly curved around the midriff. Her beautiful face has a calm and pleasant facial expression. A crown with an unusually tall cap adorns her head. She is wearing a variety of jewelry, including necklaces, anklets, and armbands. Above her long skirt, which has beautiful patterns, an udiyana (waistband) is wrapped around the waist.

Notice the looped thread hanging across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist. It is known as yajnopavita and is a symbol that indicates that the person wearing it – typically a man – has mastered the Vedas and undergone the Upanayana ceremony. Mohini wearing the yajnopavita does symbolize that she is indeed an avatar of Vishnu, generally depicted as a man.

If you look at Mohini’s toes, you will notice that her second toe is longer than the big toe. In modern medicine, it is considered a deformity, suffered by 20% of the population. This deformity even has a name, i.e., Morton’s Toe. In ancient India, a woman with Morton’s Toes is highly sought after for marriage because of the belief that she would make an ideal wife.

Narasimha pillar

This intricately carved pillar is one of the major attractions of the Chennakeshava Temple. It is a testament to the ingenuity of the builders and sculptors of the temple. It is believed that this pillar had a rotating mechanism – like having ball-bearings at the bottom and top – to enable it to rotate about its own axis.

At the bottom, there is a rectangular pedestal on which the circular end of the pillar rests. People were able to rotate the pillar above the circular end. Above the circular end, there is a rectangular base, above which the pillar becomes circular. This circular space is divided into six horizontal layers, each of which has several miniature shrines carved into it.

Above the horizontal layers, the pillar gradually becomes narrower, ending up with two disc-like constructions, and then it evolves into a wide disc. Sitting on top of the wide disc is an inverse conical construction with a polygonal slab on the top. Above this is the capital of the pillar.

The entire pillar space is covered with fine filigree work. The base has reliefs depicting episodes, such as Samudra Manthana, Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, described in ancient Hindu texts and epics. A variety of deities are carved inside and around the miniature shrines.

Highly ornate exterior

The outline of the Navaranga exterior is step-shaped and consists of multiple sections. As mentioned before, there are three entrances, the main entrance on the east side, the south entrance, and the north entrance. There is no entrance on the west side because of the garbhagriha located on that side. Architecturally, the temple is symmetrical about an east-west axis. In other words, the north-side design is a mirror image of the south-side design (and vice-versa). However, no two architectural elements are alike. Between the main entrance and the south/north entrance, there are four sections of walls.

Main entrance – Grand and magnificent

As you can see, the richly decorated facade with perfect symmetry is a delightful sight to watch. The structure faces east and is symmetrical about the east-west axis, although carvings are different on either side.

Main entrance of the Chennakeshava Temple in Belur, Karnataka, India — Main entrance to the Chennakeshava Temple

The Chennakeshava Temple stands on Jagati, a star-shaped four-foot-high platform with an extended terrace surrounding the temple. This terrace acts as the pradakshinpatha, the path on which visitors walk in the clockwise direction to perform circumambulation.

The temple floor is at a higher level than Jagati, so the approach to the door at the main entrance is through two staircases. The first staircase leads to Jagati from the courtyard, and the second to the doorway from Jagati. These staircases are flanked by four mini shrines, two on the courtyard floor and two on the Jagati terrace.

Mini shrines

The image below shows one of the mini shrines, i.e., one to the right of the staircase in the courtyard. Flanking the door are the two pillars with the sculptural reliefs of dwarapalakas carved in the lower half. Attached to each of these pillars is Yali, a mythical creature formed by combining the parts of different animals. As you can see, it is a lion on top of the head of an elephant in this case.

Bhairava inside a mini shrine at the main entrance of the Chennakeshava Temple in Belur, Karnataka, India — Bhairava inside a mini shrine at the main entrance

Standing inside this mini-shrine is a beautiful statue of Bhairava, who in Hindu mythology is a fierce form of Shiva created by himself to destroy both the internal and external enemies. His sculptural depictions indicate the fierceness of his physical presence.

As you can see from the image, he is standing on top of a slain demon with a dancing pose. Although he is a digambara (i.e., wearing no clothes), he is wearing a variety of jewelry, including necklaces, anklets, armbands and an udiyana (waistband). He is also wearing the yajnopavita, a looped thread sacred to Hindus worn across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist.

With one of his left hands, Bhairava is carrying a severed-head belonging to Brahma. According to a legend, Brahma used to have five heads, four of which facing the cardinal directions and the fifth head gazing upwards. Shiva cut off the fifth head when he realized Brahma became infatuated with a female goddess he created.

Bhairava’s other hands are holding a variety of objects that include a trishula (trident), Shula (a pointed weapon), damaru (drum-like instrument), and pasha (noose).

Hoyasala lanchana (emblem)

Mounted between the shrines and the facade are the sculptures depicting a young man killing the tiger with a lance. See the images below. Both these sculptures are at the end of the flight of steps leading to the main door and placed at an angle to enable visitors to get a good view of them as they enter.

These sculptures represent the lanchana (emblem) of the Hoysala dynasty that ruled most of Karnataka from the 11th to 14th century and is based on a story about the founding of this dynasty, which appears on an inscription attributed to King Vishnuvardhana. Per this inscription, Hoysala is a combination of Hoy and Sala. Hoy in Halegannada (Old Kannada) means hurl, and Sala is the name of the founder of the Hoysala dynasty.

Hoysala emblem on the left side of the main entrance of the Chennakeshava Temple in Belur, Karnataka, India — Hoysala emblem on the left side of the main entrance

Hoysala emblem on the right-side of the main entrance of the Chennakeshava Temple in Belur, Karnataka, India — Hoysala emblem on the left side of the main entrance

Here is the legend of Sala in brief:

While Sala was walking with his guru, a Jain sage named Sudatta Muni, a tiger suddenly appeared from nowhere and was about to pounce on his guru. To save his life, his guru yelled “Hoy Sala” at Sala, who was holding a lance at that time. Sala complied immediately by hurling the lance at the tiger and then killing it after a fierce fight, thus saving his guru’s life.

Sala was a boy at the time of this incident, and the news of his bravery soon spread, and he became a legend. He used his fame to found a dynasty, which got its name from the words uttered by his guru.

The narrative sculptures shown above capture the essence of the Hoysala legend. However, the animal appears to be a lion rather than a tiger. The north and south side entrances to the temple also have sculptures depicting Hoysala emblems near the doors.

Manmatha and Rathi on the door jambs

The door at the entrance opens into the Navaranga. A variety of sculptures and sculptural reliefs adorn the facade of the temple at the main entrance.

Rathi at the main entrance of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Rathi at the main entrance

Belur Chennakeshava Temple - Manmatha at the main entrance — Manmatha at the main entrance

As you can see from the image of the facade, the door jambs and the lintel are beautifully decorated. Carved on the bottom part of the left door jamb is Manmatha and the right door jamb is his wife Rathi. Manmatha, who is also known by many names, including Kamadeva, is a son of Vishnu and the Hindu god of love.

As you can see from the image, Manmatha is standing elegantly with the Tribhanga (bent in three places) stance, holding a sugarcane bow with his left hand and the floral arrows with his right hand. He is wearing a variety of jewelry, including necklaces, anklets, armbands, and udiyana (waistband).

Rathi is also wearing a variety of fine jewelry, including necklaces, anklets, armbands, and udiyana (waistband), and standing elegantly with the Tribhanga stance.

Garuda and Narasimha on the pediment

Carved on the pediment, which is above the door, is a finely-carved relief of Narasimha, the fourth avatar of Vishnu, carried by his vahana, Garuda, a mythical eagle-like bird with human body. Enclosing this pediment is a creeper disgorged by the Makaras sitting atop the beautifully crafted pilasters that are standing on either side of the doorway. Garuda is also on the roof, flanked by two female figures.

Jālandharas- Perforated stone windows

Known as the jālandhara, the perforated stone window is a unique element of the Dravida style architecture and is a common feature in Chalukya and Hoysala temples. The perforations allow light and air into the mantapa (covered hall). When the temple was built, the Navaranga was an open mantapa, which means there were no jālandharas. King Veera Ballala II (1173 – 1220 CE), a grandson of King Vishnuvardhana, was responsible for covering the Navaranga windows with the jālandharas, likely for security reasons.

The facade of the main entrance has four pillars, two on the left and two on the right of the door. As you can see from the images below, the jālandharas occupy the space between the pillars. Not only do the jālandharas provide ventilation and light, but also make the temple aesthetically pleasing due to the beautiful patterns of the perforations and the carvings around them. Some of the jālandharas are carved with the themes from the Hindu epics and ancient Indian texts, such as the Puranas.

The jālandhara on the left section of the main entrance facade has a sculptural relief depicting the court of King Vishnuvardana and the right section has the relief depicting the court of King Vira Ballala II.

Jalandhra and bracket figures on the left section of the main entrance of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple, Karnataka, India — Left section of the main entrance with the jālandhara and bracket figures

As you can see from the image, the diamond-shaped perforations are at the top and bottom of the window. Carved between the perforations are the beautiful sculptural reliefs depicting three distinct themes. The top-level relief depicts Narasimha, the fourth avatar of Vishnu. The reliefs of kneeling Garuda are at the ends. The middle-level relief depicts the āsthāna (royal court) of Vishnuvardhana (1108 – 1152 CE), one of the great kings of the Hoysala dynasty and the builder of this temple. The bottom level has lions carved in between the perforations.

Mounted at an angle on the pillars are the two bracket figures, Nātya Sundari and Gāna Sundari. Check the Belur Chennakeshava Temple – Bracket Figures page for a list and descriptions of the bracket figures in the temple.

Jalandhra and bracket figures on the right section of the main entrance of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple, Karnataka, India — Right section of the main entrance with the jālandhara and bracket figures

This jālandhara is on the right side of the facade. It also has the diamond-shaped perforations and the carvings between the perforations depict three distinct themes. The top-level relief depicts Vishnu standing with his consort Lakshmi, and Hanuman and Garuda are at the ends. The middle-level relief likely depicts the āsthāna (royal court) of King Veera Ballala II (1173 – 1220 CE), a grandson of King Vishnuvardhana and one of the great kings of the Hoysala dynasty. The bottom level has lions carved in between the perforations.

Mounted at an angle on the pillars are the two bracket figures, Darpana Sundari and Shuka Bhasini.

South entrance

The structure of the southern entrance is similar to the main entrance, but the carvings are different. The lower part of the door jambs have the carvings of Hanuman and Garuda on the left and right side respectively.

There is only one jālandhara, which is on the right side, and it depicts the story of Narasimha, one of the avatars of Vishnu, slaying Hiranyakashipu in a gruesome manner by ripping off his entrails with his bare claws. The left side jālandhara was most likely destroyed, so it is now closed with stones.

North entrance

Just like the southern entrance, the structure of the northern entrance is similar to the main entrance, but the carvings are different. The lower part of the door jambs have the carvings of Jaya and Vijaya, the dwarapalakas of Vishnu. In this entrance also, there is only one jālandhara, which is on the left side, and the right side window is closed with stones. The jālandhara on this entrance doesn’t have a sculptural relief but has a beautiful pattern of square holes.

Exterior wall

The exterior wall surrounding the Navaranga has four lateral sections between the main facade and the south entrance. Likewise, there are four lateral sections between the main facade and the north entrance because of the east-west symmetry.

Separated by pillars, the consecutive lateral sections are at right angles to each other. In addition to the end pillars, there is a pillar in the middle of these lateral sections. Mounted on these pillars just below the eaves are the bracket figures. The jālandharas occupy space between two pillars.

Here are some of the noteworthy sculptural reliefs and carving on the jālandharas:

Maha Vishnu

Vishnu reclining on Sheshanaga - A beautifully carved relief on a Jalandhra in the Belur Chennakeshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Vishnu reclining on Adishesha

The jālandhara shown in the image is located on the fourth section of the wall from the main entrance. It has several square holes surrounded by carvings that include beautiful patterns, figures from the Hindu epics, and the main sculptural relief, i.e., reclining Vishnu.

As you can see from the image, the reclining Vishnu relief is finely carved with great details. Vishnu in this relief is portrayed with four hands and is wearing a beautiful dress and a variety of jewelry all over the body. He is lying down in a relaxed manner on Adishesha, the seven-headed king of serpents, who appears to be floating on an ocean. Vishnu’s facial expression also shows his relaxed mood as his wife Lakshmi massages his left foot.

This relief actually depicts the birth of Brahma, the creator of the Universe in Hindu mythology, and is based on an ancient Indian text called Vaishnava Purana. If you look closely at the relief, you can see Brahma is attached to a lotus flower that is emerging from Vishnu’s navel. The lotus flower acts as the umbilical cord of Brahma. Because of his role as the primary creator, Vishnu is referred here as Maha Vishnu (Great Vishnu).

Note: There are differing accounts of Brahma’s creation in other Puranas. For example, in Shiva Purana, Shiva created Vishnu and Brahma.

Avatars of Vishnu on a frieze

Just below the Maha Vishnu jālandhara, there is a frieze with some avatars of Vishnu.

Avatars of Vishnu carved on the exterior wall of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Avatars of Vishnu carved on a frieze on the exterior wall of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple

The frieze depicts six of the ten avatars of Vishnu. Here is the list from left to right:

Kurma Avatara – Turtle
Matsya Avatara – Fish
Mohini Avatara – Mohini
Narasimha Avatara – Man – lion
Varaha Avatara– Wild boar
Rama Avatara – Rama

Check the Hampi Virupaksha Temple Murals page for a list and a detailed explanation of the ten avatars of Vishnu.

Bracket figures

One of the amazing features of this temple is the placing of the finely carved figures, popularly known as the bracket figures, atop the pillars on the exterior wall just below the eaves. There are 38 of them, and each of them tells a story. Only a couple of them are goddesses, and the rest are people, mostly women.

Read more about the bracket figures in the Belur Chennakeshava Temple – Bracket Figures page.

Darpana Sundari – A bracket figure mounted on a pillar at the main entrance of the Chennakeshava Temple
Shuka Bhasini – Shilabalike talking to her pet parrot
Tribhangi – Dolu playing Natya Sundari with the Tribhanga stance
Dolu playing dancer
Kapala Durga – A bracket figure mounted on the exterior wall of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple
Naatya Sundari, the dancing madanike at the main entrance
Madanike chasing a monkey with a twig
Nagna Sundari (Nude Beauty) looking at the scorpion
Kesha Sundari – Madanike styling her long hair
Madanike hunting a bird
Mango plucking Madanike
Tribhangi – Dolu playing Natya Sundari with the Tribhanga stance
Flute playing male musician
Dolu playing male musician
Narthaka – Dolu playing male dancer
Darpana Sundari – A bracket figure mounted on a pillar at the main entrance of the Chennakeshava Temple
Koravanji – A damaru playing fortune teller
Naatya Sundari – Madanike with a perfect dance pose
Naatya Sundari – Madanike with a traditional dancing stance
Madanike holding a betel leaf and pankah (fan)
Betegarthi (Huntress) – Proud madanike after a successful hunt
Goddess Durga
Gaana Sundari playing the taala (manjira)
Natya Sundari (Dancing Beauty) – Lizard chasing a fly in the background

Hoysala Temples
– Belur Chennakeshava Temple
— Bracket Figures, Navaranga, Garbhagriha Outer Wall
– Kappe Chennigaraya Shrine
– Somanathapura Keshava Temple
Badami Chalukya Temples
– Badami, Cave – 1, Cave – 2, Cave – 3, Cave – 4
– Durga Temple at Aihole
Vijayanagara Temples
– Hampi Virupaksha Temple Murals
Khmer Temples in Cambodia
– Angkor Wat, Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs, Banteay Srei, Angkor Thom, Ta Prohm, Bayon
Monuments in Indonesia
– Prambanan Temples, Prambanan Bas-Reliefs
– Borobudur

Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs

Narrative and exquisitely carved

Known for its immensity, grandeur, and architectural brilliance, Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument in the world and one of the most visited. Located in Siem Reap, Cambodia, this sprawling complex was originally a Vishnu temple built by the Khmer King Survarman II in the 12th century. It was later converted into a Buddhist monument by the kings who came after him.

Angkor Wat also offers a glimpse of the day-to-day life during the heyday of the Khmer civilization through its intricately-carved numerous bas-reliefs carved on its galleries, pediments of gopuras, and pillars depicting scenes based mostly on the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, and ancient Hindu texts, such as the Puranas. Although there are bas-reliefs on the upper-level galleries and pediments, the bas-reliefs on the lower-level galleries are extensive and detailed.

Elaborate bass-reliefs on the lower-level gallery

The lower-level galleries are in a rectangular structure built at the periphery of the lower enclosure. On each side of this structure, there are two sections of continuously carved bas-reliefs. In total, there are eight sections of bas-reliefs, each with a different theme. The bas-reliefs are carved on the polygonal walls of the structure, and most of them have two or three tiers in the vertical direction. Many of the bas-reliefs have polished appearance, and a few still have traces of original paint, especially red.

Unlike the majority of Hindu temples, which are east-facing and where the visitors follow the pradakshina patha (clockwise circumambulation path), Angkor Wat is west-facing and the visitors follow the counter-clockwise path starting from the main entrance, which is in the middle of the west side gallery.

West Gallery, South Section: Battle of Kurukshetra

The Battle of Kurukshetra is the theme in the southern section of the west gallery. Based on the Hindu epic Mahabharata, this bas-relief depicts the fighting scene between the Pandavas and Kauravas.

The image below shows the advancing Kaurava army. On the top-left corner, Bhishma, the commander of the Kaurava army, is seen lying on the bed of arrows fired by Arjuna.

Death of Bhishma

The death of Bhishma is a well-known episode in Mahabharata. According to the story, Bhishma, the grand-uncle of both the Kauravas and Pandavas, leads the Kaurava army for the first ten days of the battle. As the Kurukshetra Battle rages, Krishna realizes Bhishma is an obstacle to Pandava’s victory because Arjuna is unable to beat Bhishma in the battle. To ensure Pandava’s victory, Krishna devises a clever plan involving Shikhandi, a eunuch, to kill Bhishma. Krishna knew Bhishma took an oath not to fight the other gender.

As per the plan, Shikhandi accompanies Arjuna in his chariot on the tenth day of the battle. When the battle starts between Arjuna and Bhishma, Arjuna hides behind Shikhandi and fires arrows at Bhishma. Unable to fight back because of his oath, Bhishma lays down his arms. As Arjuna’s arrows pierce through Bhishma’s body, he falls down making it appear as if he is lying on the bed of arrows. See the image on the right side.

Raging Battle

Battle of Kurukshetra bas-relief depicting melee of Kaurava and Pandava warriors carved in Angkor Wat, Siem Reap, Cambodia — Battle of Kurukshetra bas-relief depicting melee of Kaurava and Pandava warriors

The image depicts the fight between the Kaurava and Pandava armies. The Kaurava warriors are moving from left to right, and the Pandava warriors are from right to left. The commanders are on the chariots.

South Gallery, West Section: Procession of King Suryavarman II

The Procession of King Suryavarman II is the theme of the western section of the south gallery. Unlike the other bas-relief themes, this is based on history. It depicts King Suryavarman II in a procession with his commanders, soldiers, courtiers and ordinary people. The commanders are on elephants, and the rank of commander is indicated by the number of parasols surrounding them.

Suryavarman II as the King

Bas-relief of Khmer King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat, in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Bas-relief of Khmer King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat

As you can see from the image, King Suryavarman II is elegantly seated on his throne with his legs on the seat – a typical Indian way of sitting. He is portrayed with beautiful jewelry on his body as per the custom in India and Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia. He is wearing bracelets and arm rings on his hands, anklets on his legs, a beautiful necklace around his neck and an udiyan (waist chain) around his waist. He is holding with his right hand a strange object believed to be a dead snake, the significance of which is a mystery.

Surrounding King Suryavarman II are his attendants waving pankahs (fans) with long handles and chauris (fly-whisks). Notice the parasols around the king. There are fifteen of them in this bas-relief. The number of parasols indicate the rank of a commander in his army. The king has the highest number of parasols among the commanders in the procession implying that he is the commander-in-chief.

Suryavarman II as the Commander-in-Chief

Standing majestically on top of the elephant is King Suryavarman II as the commander-in-chief of his army. His left hand is holding a sword that is pointing downwards, and his right hand is holding an unknown object (probably a weapon). Sitting in front of him is the mahout goading the elephant with an ankusha, which is a pointed tool with a hook used in India and Southeast Asia for training and controlling elephants.

Notice the parasols surrounding the king. There are fifteen of them in this bas-relief. The number of parasols surrounding a commander indicates his rank in the army. The king has the highest number of parasols among the commanders in the procession implying that he is the commander-in-chief.

A Commander

The image shows an army commander standing majestically on an elephant. He is holding a shield with his left hand and an unknown object with his right hand (similar to the one held by the king). Sitting in front of him is the mahout goading the elephant with an ankusha.

Other Participants

The image on the left shows a contingent of Siamese soldiers carrying spears marching at the head of the parade. Behind them is their commander riding an elephant. The image on the right shows women marching along the procession.

A contingent of Siamese soldiers marching the King Suryavarman II procession — Siamese soldiers

A section of bas-relief depicting women marching in the procession of King Suryavarman II — Siamese soldiers

South Gallery, East Section: Swargas and Narakas (Heavens and Hells)

Three tiers of the Heavens and Hells bas-relief carved on the eastern section of the south gallery — A section of the Heavens and Hells bas-relief carved on the eastern section of the south gallery

As the name suggests, the Heavens and Hells bas-relief is about the depiction of heavens and hells as described in the ancient Hindu texts called Puranas. The image shows a section of 200 feet long bas-relief carved into the eastern section of the southern gallery.

As you can see from the image, this section of the bas-relief has the following three horizontal layers:
1. Upper layer: Depicts swargas (heavens)
2. Middle layer: Depicts the bhoomi (earth)
3. Bottom layer: Depicts narakas (hells)

The entire Heavens and Hells bas-relief depicts 37 swargas and 32 narakas. The narakas are much more descriptive than the swargas. As you can see from the bottom layer, the punishment of sinners is gory and elaborate. Although naraka translates to hell, it is not the hell as understood in the West. A naraka is more akin to purgatory because it is not eternal and the sinners can redeem themselves once they pay for their sins. In Hindu mythology, sinners are reborn, but not always as human beings.

Yama’s Court

In Hindu mythology, Yama is one of the Ashta Dikpalas (guardians of the eight directions) and is responsible for guarding the South, which makes him the lord of the south. Therefore, the bas-reliefs related to Yama are in the south gallery.

Angkor Wat bas-relief depicting Yama sitting on a buffalo conducting the proceedings in his court

A section of the Heavens and Hells bas-relief depicting Chitragupta, the assessor, checking the records of souls

Heavens and Hells bas-relief depicting Yama's guards pushing sinners to hell through a trapdoor

The bas-relief on the left image depicts the Yama, the god of justice and lord of naraka, sitting on a buffalo and conducting the proceedings in his court. He is portrayed with multiple hands, one of which carries his signature weapon gada (mace), and is surrounded by his guards and sinners.

The bas-relief on the top right shows the continuation of Yama’s court where Chitragupta, a god in Hindu mythology and the assessor who keeps the records of good and bad deeds of a human being from birth to death, assisting Yama in determining who goes to heaven and who goes to hell.

The image on the bottom right shows the guards in the upper-tier pushing the sinners to the lower-tier through a trapdoor and the guards in the lower tier, which represents a naraka, punishing the sinners in a variety of ways.

Narakas – Punishing the Sinners

According to Hindu mythology, a naraka is designed to punish a specific type of sin. The images below show some of the 32 narakas depicted in the bas-relief.

A depiction of hell in the Heavens and Hells bas-relief

Punishing sinners in the Heavens and Hells bas-relief

East Gallery, South Section: Samudra Manthana

The south section of the east gallery depicts Samudra Manthana, one of the well-known legends of Hindu mythology. In Sanskrit, samudra means ocean and manthana mean churning. It is a story about the churning of the ocean to produce amrita, the nectar of immortality. This story appears in many Hindu epics, including Mahabharata and Vishnu Purana.

According to the story, devas (demigods) and asuras (demons) collaborate to produce amrita by churning the Ocean of Milk. To perform churning, they use Vasuki (king of nagas) as the rope and Mount Mandara as the churning rod. Vasuki is coiled around Mount Mandara with asuras are on the head side and devas are on the tail side of Vasuki.

The churning took 1000 years to complete resulting in many by-products, including 14 ratnas (precious things), one of them is amrita. The other ratnas include the Moon, Ramba (an apsara), Lakshmi (Goddess of Wealth). Produced along with amrita was halahala (poison) emanating from the mouths of Vasuki. Realizing the danger posed to the world by this poison, Shiva drank it but did not swallow it. So, it stayed in his throat forever. Shiva is therefore called Neelakanta (blue throat) as the result of poison remaining in his throat. Vasuki then became Shiva’s snake and remained coiled around his neck.

A section of the Samudra Manthana bas-relief depicting Ravana and the asuras churning the ocean — Ravan leading asuras

A section of the Samudra Manthana bas-relief depicting Vishnu and Indra in the middle of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk — Ravan leading asuras

The left image shows asuras led by a multi-headed Ravana pulling Vasuki’s body on the head side. To the left of Ravana is the army of asuras on elephants and horses. The middle image shows Vishnu with four arms overseeing the churning at Mount Mandara and Indra flying on top of the mountain to stabilize it. The right image shows devas led by Hanuman pulling the body of Vasuki on the tail side. Although Ravana and Hanuman were not part of Samudra Manthana, their symbolic inclusion was to show that it was a fight between good and evil.

To the left and right of the Mount Mandara are the apsaras acting as cheer-leaders to asuras as well as devas. The bas-relief in this section is beautiful and intricately carved. Unlike the other bas-reliefs, it is easy to understand the story and identify the players.

East Gallery, North Section: Vishnu’s Victory over Asuras

A section of the Gods Vs. Asuras bas-relief depicting an asura commander on a chariot fighting the gods

The northern section of the east gallery is about Vishnu’s victory over asuras, a generic theme not taken from any epics. It is believed that this bas-relief was likely completed at a later date, probably in the 15th or 16th century.

North Gallery, East Section: Krishna’s Victory over Banasura

The scenes depicted on the bas-relief carved on the eastern section of the north gallery is based on Krishna’s Victory over Banasura story, which appears in Mahabharata and Vishnu Purana. This story is about Krishna, who is an avatar of Vishnu, fighting Shiva and becoming victorious. It is not a well-known story but chosen deliberately to show the dominance of Vishnu because King Suryavarman II broke the Shaiva tradition of his predecessors and made Vishnu the dominant god of the Hindu Trinity.

Legend of Banasura

According to the story, Banasura, an asura king with thousand arms, is an ardent devotee of Shiva whom he tried to please by doing tapasu (austerity and meditation) for many years. Pleased with his devotion, Shiva confers upon him with many varas (boons), one of which was to be his ally in future fights. Once he gets these varas, Banasura becomes arrogant and starts ill-treating his subjects. When his daughter Usha reaches the marriageable age, many suitors approach her with an intention to marry. Banasura gets angry at the suitors and builds a fortress called Agnigraha (house of fire in Sanskrit) and imprisons her there to keep her away from them.

Angkor Wat - Krishna's Victory over Banasura bas-relief depicting Krishna riding Vishnu's vehicle Garuda and fighting Banasura — Krishna riding Vishnu’s vehicle Garuda and fighting Banasura

Angkor Wat - Vishnu's vehicle Garuda entering Agnigraha (House of Fire) in the Krishna's Victory over Banasura bas-relief — Garuda entering Agnigraha (house of fire) built by Bansaura

One day, Usha dreams of a young man and falls in love with him. When she mentions this to her maid Chitraleka, who realizes that the young man is Aniruddha, one of the grandsons of Krishna. Chitraleka with her superpowers summons Aniruddha to Usha’s quarters. When he sees Usha, he falls in love with her too. Meanwhile, Banasura comes to know of Aniruddha’s presence in Usha’s quarters. He captures and imprisons him. When Krishna comes to know about his grandson’s imprisonment, he wages war against Banasura. At the request of Banasura, Shiva keeps his promise and starts fighting against Krishna. Realizing this, Krishna tricks Shiva by firing a weapon that puts Shiva to sleep. Krishna then severs all but four arms of Banasura. Shiva then wakes up and begs Krishna not to kill Banasura. Meanwhile, Banasura realizing his mistakes begs forgiveness and allows his daughter to marry Aniruddha.

The image shows Garuda facing Agnigraha (house of fire) built by Bansaura to keep his daughter Usha.

North Gallery, West Section: Battle between Gods and Asuras

The theme of the bas-relief on the western section of the north gallery is not taken from any epics, instead, it depicts a generic theme of the good fighting evil. The bas-relief Battle between Gods and Asuras is about the Hindu pantheon of gods fighting the evil asuras. It is a battle scene with 21 Hindu gods mounted on their vehicles fighting the asuras.

The images below show four of the gods, Vishnu, Varuna, Indra, and Kartikeya (also known as Skanda, Subramanya), and an unidentified asura.

Vishnu riding Garuda depicted in the Gods Vs. Asuras bas-relief carved in the lower-level gallery of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Vishnu riding Garuda

Varuna Riding Makara depicted in the Gods Vs. Asuras bas-relief carved in the lower-level gallery of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Vishnu riding Garuda

The gods are seen riding their signature vahanas (vehicles) and fighting asuras. Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, is riding Garuda, an eagle-like mythical bird. Indra, the king of heaven and gods, is riding an elephant called Airavata. Varuna, the sea god, is riding a multi-headed mythical creature called Makara. Indra and Varuna are dikpalas (guardians of directions); Indra guards East and Varuna West. Check the Ashta Dikpalas page to read more about all the eight dikpalas. Skanda, the god of war, is riding a peacock called Parvani.

Brahma sitting in a cocoon in the Battle between Gods and Asuras bas-relief carved in the lower-level gallery of the Angkor Wat Temple — Brahma sitting in a cocoon in the Battle between Gods and Asuras bas-relief

The bas-relief of Brahma, one of the Hindu Trinity, sitting in a cocoon is unusual. Although Brahma is the creator in Hindu mythology, he is not worshiped widely like Vishnu or Shiva. There are very few temples dedicated to Brahma in the world. The Brahma Temple in Prambanan is one of the well-known temples in Southeast Asia. The Brahma Temple in Pushkar is one of the few temples dedicated to Brahma In India.

Check the following sculptural reliefs of Brahma on the outer walls of the temples: Brahma in Belur Chennakeshava Temple, Brahma in the Somanathapura Chennakeshava Temple in Karnataka, India

There are several legends why Brahma is not worshiped. According to one legend, his consort Savitri, who was angered by Brahma’s extreme lust, cursed him not to be worshiped anywhere in the world except in Pushkar. In another legend, Shiva cursed Brahma because he lied to him and Vishnu about their creation.

West Gallery, North Section: Battle of Lanka

The Battle of Lanka is the theme of the bas-relief carved on the northern section of the west gallery. This is the final battle in Ramayana in which Rama and the army of monkeys (Vanara Sené) defeat Ravana and rescue Rama’s wife Sita. The Battle of Lanka bas -relief is likely based on the Yudda Kanda chapter of Ramayana authored by Valmiki. Besides Rama and Ravana, it depicts many prominent figures from both sides.

After the abduction of Rama’s wife Sita by Ravana, Rama gathered an army with the help of his ally Sugriva, the king of the vanara (monkey) kingdom of Kishkindha, and attacked Lanka to rescue her. According to Ramayana, Lanka, where this epic battle took place, is an island located south of India. The present-day island nation of Sri Lanka closely fits the description of Lanka in Ramayana.

Ravana in the Battle of Lanka bas-relief carved in the lower-level gallery of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Ravana in the Battle of Lanka

According to Hindu mythology, Ravana is a rakasha (demon) with supernatural powers. He is capable of assuming any forms, but in his natural form, he has ten heads and twenty arms. His typical iconography shows him with these features. As you can see from the image, he does have ten heads and twenty arms. ,

In this bas-relief, Ravana is in battle mode leading his warriors in this epic battle against Rama. He is holding a variety of weapons with his hands, including bow and arrows, maces, and astras (arrows that posses supernatural destructive power). While Ravana is leading his charge, a monkey warrior is lunging at him on the leff. Ramayana describes this monkey warrior as Nila, the commander-in-chief of the vanara sené (monkey army) and builder of Rama Sethu (the bridge between India and Lanka). Charging with Ravana are his warriors carrying gadaas (maces).

Raging Battle between Rakshashas Vs. Vanara Sené (Army of Monkeys)

In this battle, Rama’s warriors are mostly the vanaras from his ally Sugriva. Ravana being a rakshasa (demon), his warriors mostly the rakshasas.

A combat scene in the Battle of Lanka relief depicting a monkey warrior straddled on the heads of two lions carved in the lower-level gallery of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — A monkey warrior straddled on the heads of two lions

The entire Battle of Lanka bas-relief is about raging battle that is underway with the rakshasa and monkey warriors engaged in hand-to-hand combat. Straddled on the heads of two beautifully carved lions harnessed to a chariot is a ferocious monkey warrior carrying on his shoulder a rakshasa, who presumably is the charioteer. Notice that the rakshasa is wielding a sword and trying to attack the monkey warrior.

The images below show two more such scenes where a monkey warrior is dueling with a rakshasa.

A combat scene in the Battle of Lanka relief carved in the lower-level gallery of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — A combat scene in the Battle of Lanka

A combat scene in the Battle of Lanka relief depicting a monkey warrior subduing two lions carved in the lower-level gallery of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — A combat scene in the Battle of Lanka

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Phnom Kulen

Revered by Cambodians from all walks of life, Phnom Kulen (means Mountain of Lychees in Khmer) is the birthplace of the Khmer civilization. King Jayavarman II chose Phnom Kulen to found the Khmer Empire and declare himself a Chakravarty (King of Kings) in 802 CE. The kings who came after him expanded the empire and built numerous temples and monuments in and around Phnom Kulen.

Phnom Kulen is not a single mountain, but a landscape covered with hills and hillocks separated by valleys and flatland. This land of exceptional beauty is now a part of Phnom Kulen National Park.

Legend of Mahendrparavata

Phnom Kulen was known as the Mahendraparvata during the Khmer period. In Sanskrit, mahendra means great Indra and parvata means mountain.

According to a local legend, Mahendraparvata is the mountain which Hanuman lifted to the battlefield in Lanka to extract Sanjeevini, a herbal plant that is capable of curing all diseases, to save Lakshmana from dying.

Location

Phom Kulen is located 30 miles northeast of Siem Reap.

Kbal Spean River

The Kbal Spean River is a small river flowing within the Phnom Kulen National Park. It is a tributary to the Siem Reap River, which flows through the Angkor Wat Archaeological Site in Siem Reap, Cambodia.

The Kbal Spean River is known as the Sahasralinga River (River of One Thousand Lingas) because of the hundreds of lingas carved on its sandstone riverbed. Sahasra means a thousand in Sanskrit. The linga is a symbol of Shiva, one of the Hindu Trinity.

As you can see from the images below, the lingas are carved on the riverbed in a grid-like fashion. In addition to the lingas, the river has other sculptures carved on its riverbed and the rocks.

Thousand lingas carved into the river bed of the Kbal Spean River in the Phnom Kulen National Park, Cambodia

Sahasra lingas carved into the riverbed of the Kbal Spean River

One thousand lingas carved into the Kbal Spean riverbed

Natural Pool

The natural pool near shown in the image below is located near the Kbal Spean River. The water in this pool is a result of some geological activity occurring beneath the pool. It appears as though there is an underground spring under the pool. A small stream of water flows out of the pool into the Kbal Spean River. The water in the pool is not very hot but appears to contain a lot of minerals.

Freshwater pool near Kbal Spean River in Phnom Kulen National Park, Cambodia — The natural freshwater pool near Kbal Spean River in Phnom Kulen National Park

Waterfalls

The image below shows a spectacular view of the waterfall in Phnom Kulen, which is a major tourist attraction, is visited by Cambodians who come here to dip in the pool at the bottom of the falls to atone their sins.

The waterfall shown below is located just above the larger one shown above.

Preah Ang Thom

Preah Ang Thom is a Buddhist monastery situated on a boulder in the Phnom Kulen National Park. It’s famous for the reclining Buddha statue carved out of the boulder.

Preah Ang Thom Entrance

Reclining Buddha in Preah Ang Thom

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Tonlé Sap

Located on the lower Mekong basin, Tonle’ Sap is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. Because of the seasonal changes, its size fluctuates. During the dry season, the lake shrinks as the water flows out of the lake into the rivers. During the wet season, the lake expands as the water flows into the lake from the rivers. and the water level rises as much as 30 feet. Thus, it acts as a natural reservoir.

Located on the lower Mekong basin, Tonlé Sap is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. Because of the seasonal changes, its size fluctuates. During the dry season, the lake shrinks as the water flows out of the lake into the rivers. During the wet season, the lake expands as the water flows into the lake from the rivers, and the water level rises as much as 30 feet. Thus, it acts as a natural reservoir.

The maximum dimensions of the lake are, length – 260 miles, width – 62 miles, and depth – 33 feet

A boat transporting goods in the Tonlé Sap Lake

Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia

Location

Tonlé Sap is located 30 miles south of Siem Reap in Cambodia.

Floating Villages

Tonlé Sap is home to many floating villages inhabited mostly by the Vietnamese and Cham people. They earn their livelihood by fishing and crocodile farming.

In addition to floating houses, these villages have floating schools, shops, and even churches. See the images below.

A Floating House in Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia — A Floating House

A floating school on Tonlé Sap

Floating shops on Tonlé Sap

A floating church on Tonlé Sap

A Floating Catholic Church on the Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia

A floating Catholic Church on Tonlé Sap

Crocodile Farming

The wild Siamese crocodiles are native to Southeast Asia and are on the United Nations endangered species list. However, they are allowed to be farmed in Tonlé Sap.

Siamese crocodiles in a farm on a platform floating on Tonlé Sap in Cambodia

Siamese crocodiles in a farm on a floating platform in Tonlé Sap, Cambodia

Siamese crocodile skins for sale in a souvenir shop on Tonlé Sap

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Ta Prohm

Ta Prohm is one of the most visited temple complexes in Siem Reap, Cambodia. The temple complex is intermingled with tall trees, some of which have grown on top of structures with their roots flowing down to the ground, which makes a fascinating view.

Location

It is located a mile east of Bayon.

Archaeological Site

The Ta Prohm archaeological site was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. The Archaeological Society of India (ASI) has been collaborating with the Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap (APSARA) of Cambodia to conserve and restore the site. The image below shows the layout of the site.

Layout of the Ta Prohm temple complex — The layout of the Ta Prohm temple complex

History

According to the inscription found inside the temple, King Jayavarman VII, who was a follower of Mahayana Buddhism, built Ta Prohm as a Buddhist monument in 1186 CE and dedicated it to his mother. It is believed that she is buried inside the temple complex. Ta Prohm also has two smaller temples inside the complex dedicated to his brother and guru (teacher).

Ta Prohm, which means Ancestor Brahma, was originally named Raja Vihara, which in Sanskrit literally means king’s rest house. But the term vihara was generally used in Buddhist texts to indicate a monastery. Therefore, Ta Prohm must have been a Buddhist monastery.

Layout

The layout and architecture of Ta Prohm are more like Banteay Srei than Angkor Wat. It is not a temple mountain like Angkor Wat, but rather like Banteay Srei having temple structures within the concentric enclosures.

Like most of the Hindu and Buddhist temples, Ta Prohm faces east. It has five concentric enclosures of rectangular shape with a wall surrounding each, but most of the walls have collapsed.

Temple Complex

The image shows the causeway and the entrance to the third innermost enclosure from the west side.

Ta Prohm has many temple structures with tall trees grown on top of them. The roots of the trees flow down to the ground covering parts of the structure. These scenes have fascinated people all over the world and tourists flock to see these fascinating structures that coexist with the jungle.

A Ta Prohm Temple structure with a tree grown on top

A tree on top of a temple structure at the Ta Prohm Temple complex

Ta Prohm temple structures with trees growing on top

Bayon

Bayon is a mysterious Buddhist temple constructed at the exact center of Angkor Thom. Whereas Angkor Wat gives an impression of a grandeur edifice with harmonious design and open spaces, Bayon appears like a jumble of disproportionate structures crammed in a small place, and yet it is one of the most visited sites in Siem Reap. Unlike Angkor Wat, the Bayon has neither the moat nor temple prakara (a protective wall surrounding the temple). Numerous towers with carved giant smiling faces pop up everywhere inside the temple.

Location

The Bayon Temple is located exactly at the center of Angkor Thom.

History

The temple was commissioned by Jayavarman VII in the late 12th century to be built as his state temple inside the capital city of Angkor Thom which he founded. As mentioned earlier, it was initially built as a Buddhist temple. However, it was converted to a Hindu temple by Jayavarman VIII and it appears many Buddha statues were destroyed and replaced with statues Shiva and Vishnu.

The original name of the Bayon was Vijayagiri (victory hill in Sanskrit). It was likely named after Khmer’s victory over the Champs, who ransacked Angkor Wat after the death of Suryavarman VII, the builder of Angkor Wat. The name Bayon is recent; It is a vernacular version of Banyan, the name given by the French because of the Banyan tree in the complex.

Temple Complex

The temple complex is small compared to the Angkor Wat and it does not have a moat or a prakara, but it does have three concentric enclosures with inner enclosures rising to a higher level. The enclosure has galleries with bas-reliefs on the walls. The bas-reliefs here are not as organized or theme-oriented as in Angkor Wat.

A view of the Bayon Temple from the southwest side

A view of the Bayon temple

Lower Level

The lower level has three concentric square galleries close to each other.

Galleries

The image below shows a view of the temple with the south-side gallery on the right.

A view of the Bayon temple from the south side

Bas-reliefs

The bas-relief depicts the actual events rather than the scenes from the epics as in Angkor Wat.

The image below shows the bas-relief depicting the naval battle in the Tonle Sap Lake between the Khmer and the Champs. This battle was fought in the 13th century ending in Khmer’s victory.

A section of the bas-relief on the lower level gallery of the Bayon temple depicting Khmer vs. Champs naval war

The images of the bas-reliefs below provide a glimpse of how the ordinary people lived in the 12th and 13 century under the Khmer rule.

A section of bas-relief on the lower level gallery depicting a hunting scene

A section of the bas-relief on the lower level gallery depicting a hunting scene

A section of the bas-relief on the lower level gallery of the Bayon temple depicting a daily life scene

Bas-relief depicting daily life in Khmer Empire

Upper Terrace

The upper terrace dominates with the towers carved with the giant smiling faces. Some of the towers have four faces, each in a cardinal direction leading some experts to believe that the statues represent the Hindu god Brahma. However, it was later established that the Bayon was a Buddhist monument.

These towers are close to each other and in no apparent order. The purpose of these towers is still a big mystery. There are many theories floating around to explain why they were constructed and whom they represent.

According to one theory, the faces represent Avalokitesvara, a Bodhisattva who embodies the values of Buddha. Another theory suggests the faces represent King Jayavarman VII himself who attained the title of Avalokitesvara. Note: It is not unusual to refer a king as Avalokitesvara in the Indian subcontinent during the period when Buddhism was dominant.

Towers on the upper level of the Bayon Temple carved with smiling faces

The images below show the towers with four heads, each in a cardinal direction.

A tower on the upper level of the Bayon Temple carved with smiling faces

A smiling face carved on the upper-level tower of the Bayon Temple

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Angkor Thom

Located a mile north of Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom is a city founded in the late 12th century by the famed Khmer King Jayavarman VII on the western banks of the Siem Reap River. It served as the Khmer capital until the 17th century. The city now contains the ruins of several temples within its limits, some of them already existed when the city was founded and some of them were built by Jayavarman VII and his successors. The most significant among them is Bayon, which was commissioned by Jayavarman VII as the state temple.

The city of Angkor Thom has four gates, one each on the cardinal direction. The ruins of the south gate are one of the most photographed structures in Siem Reap and visited by most tourists.

South Gate

The south gate is on the banks of Siem Reap River, which flows into the Tonle Sap Lake. The pathway leading to the gate is on a bridge over this river. Lined on the left side of the pathway are the statues of devas (demigods) and on the right side are the statues of asuras (demons). Both devas and asuras are sitting on the body of a naga (serpent).

Statues of asuras (demons) on the pathway to the south gate of Angkor Thom in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Statues of asuras (demons) on the pathway to the south gate of Angkor Thom

A statue of a deva on the pathway to the south gate of Angkor Thom in Siem Reap, Cambodia — A statue of a deva on the pathway to the south gate of Angkor Thom

The upper part of the gate has four towers, each of which is carved with a statue of the head pointing to a cardinal direction. Standing on the lower part on both sides of the doorway are the sculptures of Indra’s vehicle Airavata, which is a three-headed elephant. Above Airavata are the damaged and weathered statues of Indra and Devas.

Angkor Thom South Gate

Angkor Thom south gate – Indra seated on a three-headed elephant

Angkor Wat

Dedicated originally to Vishnu, the magnificent temple complex of Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument built anywhere in the world. Considered an architectural marvel, the temple is an imposing sight with a majestic facade and five tall towers that can be seen from a distance. The symmetry and precision with which the temple complex was built are striking. Because of the symmetry, all the five towers on the top can only be seen at a certain angle.Built like a mountain having three concentric enclosures with inner enclosures higher than the outer ones, Angkor Wat is filled with repetitive and recursive structures that are pleasing to the eye. These structures include pillars, roofs, galleries, doorways with lintels and pediments, and gopuras (towers). In-spite of Angkor Wat’s grand scale, it gives an impression of a harmonious architecture because of its open spaces, the proportionality of the architectural elements and seamless blending with the surroundings.

Angkor Wat – An Architectural Marvel

Dedicated originally to Vishnu, the magnificent temple at Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument in the world. Considered an architectural marvel, it is an awe-inspiring sight with a majestic facade and five tall and imposing towers, which are visible from a great distance. The symmetry and precision with which the temple was built are striking. Because of the perfect symmetry, all the towers are only visible at a certain angle.

Built like a mountain consisting of three concentric enclosures with inner enclosures higher than the outer ones, Angkor Wat is filled with repetitive and recursive structures that are pleasing to the eye. These structures include pillars, roofs, galleries, doorways with lintels and pediments, and gopuras (towers). Despite Angkor Wat’s grand scale, it gives an impression of harmonious architecture because of its open spaces, the proportionality of the architectural elements and seamless blending with the surroundings.

Unlike many other famous monuments, it was never really abandoned and was in use continuously since its inception. Although it was built as a Hindu temple with cultural and religious influences from India, the architecture and building techniques were unique to Cambodia. There are no Hindu or Buddhist monuments in the Indian subcontinent that are as massive as Angkor Wat. The temple was built with local ingenuity and talent that existed for many centuries, even before the Khmer rulers came to power.

The people of Cambodia are very proud of their heritage, and it is evident from the fact that the Cambodian flag carries the image of Angkor Wat. During the civil war in the 70s and 80s, monuments did not suffer any damage as the rival sides were very protective of their heritage.

Archaeological site

Angkor Wat is a part of the larger Angkor Archaeological Park, which was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. The preservation and restoration of Angkor Wat started in 1908 by the French and is now being undertaken by the Government of Cambodia with the help of many countries, including Japan, France, and India.

The erosion of the bas-reliefs, especially on the pediments of the doors, is significant compared to Banteay Srei, which was built 200 years before Angkor Wat. The main reason for this erosion is the quality and type of sandstone used.

History

Angkor Wat was built by King Suryavarman II in the 12th century at the height of Khmer civilization. The temple was originally dedicated to Vishnu, one of the Trimurti (Trinity) of Hinduism. Even though the predecessors of Suryavarman II were devotees of Shiva, he became a devotee of Vishnu for an unknown reason. The temple became a Buddhist monument later and underwent some changes.

By any stretch of imagination, building a monument of this magnitude is a massive undertaking. It is amazing how the structure as enormous as Angkor Wat was completed in 36 years. It uses more stone blocks than the Giza Pyramid. Almost every part of the building is decorated with intricate carvings and sculptures. According to an inscription, it took 300,000 workers and 6000 elephants to complete the job. The sandstone slabs needed to build the temple were quarried from the Phnom Kulen mountains and transported to the site using elephants.

Purpose

There is a lot of debate among experts as to why this massive monument was built. Some claim that it was built as a mausoleum for Suryavarman II, the Khmer king who commissioned this monument. Some believe his body was buried under the central tower of the temple.

The Khmer people practiced their religion by mixing their ancestral belief system with Hindu traditions and philosophy. The Khmer rulers started their own brand of Hinduism known as the Devaraja cult. According to this belief system, the king is a devaraja (god-king in Sanskrit) who is divine and allowed to rule with divine authority.

Although Angkor Wat was built as a Hindu temple, it broke many traditions of the Hindu temple architecture. The main one is its orientation. Whether it is in India or Southeast Asia, almost all the Hindu temples are built facing east, a direction considered sacred because the sun, a source of energy and light, rises in that direction. In contrast, the Angkor Wat Temple faces west, the sunset direction. This is one of the reasons why the experts believe Angkor Wat is more of a mausoleum than a temple.

Angkor Wat, the heavenly city of Vishnu

The original name of Angkor Wat was Vrah Vishnuloka, which in Sanskrit means the sacred abode of Vishnu. The name Angkor Wat became prevalent once the Khmer rulers started following Buddhism.

The name Angkor Wat means temple city in the Khmer language. The world angkor was derived from nakor, which was borrowed from the Sanskrit word nagara, which means city. Wat in Khmer means the temple. It is again derived from the Sanskrit word vata, which means enclosure.

As the name suggests, Angkor Wat is a city with a temple complex. It covers an area of 200 hectares with many rectangular shaped concentric enclosures.

Moat

A large moat surrounds the city. As you can see from the image, the moat is still filled with water and has steps to access it. It is about 650 ft wide and 4 ft deep and encompasses the entire temple perimeter of 3 miles.

The moat served an important purpose from the architectural standpoint. It helped to stabilize the massive Angkor Wat structures by keeping the groundwater at a steady level, i.e., it acts as a reservoir that does not let the groundwater go down too low or high. This is one of the reasons why the Angkor Wat structures are almost intact even after 1000 years.

The next inner enclosure is the actual city that housed many royal buildings, none of which have survived. Experts believe the king and the nobility lived in these buildings.

Causeway

On the west side of Angkor Wat, there is a causeway that begins at the outer bank of the moat and ends at the temple complex. There is a similar causeway on the eastern side, but a shorter one. Both the causeways are built on top of the moat.

The image shows the statue of multi-headed Sheshanaga (king of serpents) at the beginning of the causeway.

Outer enclosure

The causeway over the moat leads to the main entrance of the outer enclosure of the temple. The entrance structure has three gopuras, the middle one being the taller than the other two and the entry point.

Moat and the causeway at the entrance to the outer enclosure of the Angkor Wat complex in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Entrance to the outer enclosure

Entrance to the outer enclosure of the Angkor Wat Temple

Statue of Vishnu inside a gopura of the outer enclosure entrance

The southern gopura of this structure shelters a statue of Vishnu, which according to some experts stood inside the principal sanctuary, i.e., the uppermost terrace of the temple.

The standard iconography of Vishnu shows him with four arms, but this sculpture has four additional arms. Vishnu with 8-arms is known as Ashtabhuja Vishnu (8-armed Vishnu).

Check the following pages for the other Ashtabhuja Vishnu depictions.

Ashtabhuja (8-armed) Vishnu – Sculptural relief mounted on the outer wall of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple near Mysore in Karnataka, India
Ashtabhuja (8-armed) Vishnu – Sculptural relief carved into the left side wall of Cave -3 in Badami in Karnataka, India

A spectacular view of the entrance from the top level

A view of the outer entrance from the top-most level of Angkor Wat Temple

The image shows the space between the outer entrance and the temple complex. At the far end, the image shows part of the gallery consisting of three gopuras at the perimeter of the outer enclosure. The middle gopura is taller than the other two and is the entrance.

At the near end, the image shows the pediment of the door located on the lower level gallery. The bas-relief on the pediment depicts a scene from the Battle of Kurukshetra, an episode from the Hindu epic Mahabharata.

A causeway connects the outer entrance to the main entrance of the temple. The two similar looking library structures are situated on either side of the causeway.

The image shows one of the library structures seen in the above image.

Reflective ponds

North side pond on the outer enclosure of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia — North-side pond on the outer enclosure

The outer enclosure has two ponds, one on the south and another on the north. These ponds were not part of the original monument but were built sometime in the 16th century. The north side pond is where the tourists gather in the morning to view Angkor Wat at sunrise. If the weather is right, the sunrise offers a spectacular view of the temple with its reflection on the pond.

Magnificent temple complex built with symmetry and precision

The diagram shows the ground plan of the Angkor Wat Temple. Note: It is not drawn to scale.

The Angkor Wat Temple is oriented along the east-west axis, and as mentioned before, it is facing west, i.e., the main entrance is on the west side. The layout of the structures is symmetrical about the east-west axis. In other words, the structures on the north and south of this axis are the mirror images.

The temple complex consists of three rectangular-shaped concentric enclosures. Within these enclosures, there are three levels of structures. The middle enclosure on the first level supports the second level structures, and the inner enclosure supports the second and third level structures. In other words, the temple complex was built like a three-level pyramid.

Following the Hindu temple tradition of having a prakara at the outer limits, a rectangular structure surrounds the outer enclosure. This structure has galleries along the cardinal directions with small towers called pavilions built at the four corners. In the middle of the west and east galleries are the entrances. Carved into the walls of the galleries are the bas-reliefs depicting stories and scenes mainly from the Hindu epics such as Ramayana and Mahabharata. Check the Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs page for a detailed descriptions of these bas-reliefs.

A courtyard separates the outer and middle enclosures. On this courtyard, there are two libraries near the west entrance; one on the north and another on the south. A structure known as the Cruciform Cloister connects the west entrance to the middle enclosure. This structure also connects the first level to the second level.

The second and third level also have galleries at the boundaries. At each corner of the second level, there is a small tower connecting the galleries on both sides.

At each corner of the third level, there is a large tower connecting the galleries on both sides. At the middle of the third level is a tall tower which can be seen from all sides. There are four rectangular basins between the middle tower and the four corner towers.

Entrance to the temple complex

Entrance to the Angkor Wat temple — Entrance to the Angkor Wat Temple

Galleries

The rectangular gallery structures built on the periphery of the outer enclosure form the prakara of the temple. Note: A prakara in Hindu temple architecture is a protective wall or structure built around the outer perimeter of the temple.

There are four galleries, one in each cardinal direction. At each corner of the gallery-structure is a tower-like structure called pavilion. The image shows a view of the temple from the southwest corner showing the of the west and south galleries and the pavilion where they meet.

The images below show the corridors of the galleries whose inner walls are carved with bas-reliefs depicting various themes from Hindu mythology. The roof is beautifully decorated with rosettes of lotus flowers. Supporting the outer side of the gallery are the square pillars.

East gallery corridor on the lower level of Angkor Wat, Siem Reap, Cambodia — East gallery corridor on the lower level of Angkor Wat

Pillars on a corridor of the gallery structure on the lower level of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia — East gallery corridor on the lower level of Angkor Wat

Exquisite bas-reliefs

Intricately carved bas-reliefs adorning the gallery walls are one of the main attractions of this temple. The bas-reliefs are divided into eight sections with each gallery having two sections, each of which was carved continuously in the horizontal direction depicting multiple scenes of a theme. Some panels have two or three tiers in the vertical direction. Some part of the bas-reliefs have polished appearance and some still have traces of original paint, especially red.

Check Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs for a detailed description of bas-reliefs on the lower-level galleries.

Libraries – Mysterious structures

Many Khmer temples, including the stunningly beautiful Banteay Srei, have libraries near the entrance. Built like mini shrines, the libraries are the unique elements of the Khmer temple architecture. Although their exact purpose is still a mystery, the likely intention was to use them as repositories of manuscripts.

It is worth noting that there is no concept of libraries in the Hindu temples in India. The Hindu religious texts, which include two epics and 18 Puranas, are large and numerous. The manuscripts of these texts were likely brought from India and were considered precious and sacred. The libraries were likely built to preserve them in a safe place and were designed like shrines to allow people to worship them. However, there is no evidence that the libraries were ever used as repositories of manuscripts.

South library situated on the courtyard of Angkor Wat, Siem Reap, Cambodia — Library in the courtyard

The south library building on the courtyard of the Angkor Wat Temple — Library in the courtyard

The temple complex has two identical libraries, one in the south and the other in the north, located at the same distance from the east-west axis. They are near the west side entrance and south and north of the cruciform cloister.

The image on the right shows the library on the south side. The image on the left shows courtyard of the lower terrace, library, and gallery on the south side of the temple. To the north of the library is a structure called the cruciform cloister, a term used by architects to describe these types of structures.

Cruciform Cloister – An excellent example of symmetrical design

A Cruciform Cloister basin — A cruciform cloister basin

The term cruciform cloister is used in architecture to describe a cross-like covered structure. The underlying design-principle was used in the Angkor Wat architecture in two locations, one in the lower level and another in the top-most level. The cruciform cloister on the lower level is situated near the entrance on the west side, and it was built to connect the outer enclosure to the middle enclosure of the temple.

The cruciform cloister structure has two perpendicular axial galleries that intersect in the middle to form a cross and four boundary galleries that surround the cross to form a square. The shape of the structure thus looks like a cross surrounded by a square.

Each axial gallery connects to a boundary gallery in the middle. Thus, the resulting structure has four equal-sized quadrants, each of which is enclosed by half of the boundary and half of the axial galleries. As you can see from the image, each quadrant looks like a basin.

The cruciform cloister structure described above is an example of a perfectly symmetrical design. It is symmetrical about the east-west axis as well as the north-south axis.

As you can see from the image, the floor of the basin is paved and has steps to reach it. The construction appears water-tight. So, in all likelihood, it was a temple-tank (kunda or phuskarini), a common feature in Hindu temples. Experts believe that all four basins were filled with water when the temple was in use.

A part of the central gallery on the lower level Crucifrom Cloister — A part of the central gallery on the lower level cruciform cloister

The gallery on the right side (i.e., south side ) of the cruciform cloister is also called Preah Poan (thousand Buddhas) because of thousands of Buddha statues left inside this structure by pilgrims, most of whom came from the neighboring regions and Japan. They erected Buddha statues made of metal, stone, and wood as votive offerings. While the majority of them are lost, some can still be found here, and some are in the storage.

The gallery on the left side is called the Hall of Echoes. Here you hear the echoes of the sound you make at the end of the gallery. This is a common feature in many temples and monuments in India.

The image shows the axial gallery along the east-west direction. As you can see, it has steps at the end leading to the middle terrace.

Middle terrace

The middle terrace also has galleries at the perimeter of the rectangular enclosure. Galleries are connected to relatively small gopuras at the end. As you can see from the image on the left, a well-paved corridor is between the uppermost terrace enclosure and the middle terrace galleries. The gallery on the left side of the image ends into a small corner gopura (tower). To the right of the corner gopura is a door to the gallery. The top-level structures are on the right.

The doorways of the galleries and gopuras are beautifully decorated, and always have pediments typically carved with scenes from the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

The image on the right shows a doorway to the middle-level gallery. The lintel (which is just above the door) depicts Indra wielding his weapon Vajrayuda with his right hand while riding his vahana (vehicle) Airavata, a three-headed elephant.

The bas-relief on the pediment (which is above the lintel) depicts a scene based on an episode from Ramayana in which Vali, the Monkey King of Kishkindha, lay dying while his courtiers are mourning and the gods above are watching.

Death of Vali – A poignant episode from Ramayana

According to the story, Sugriva, who is Vali’s younger brother, secretly desires Vali’s throne. When Rama approaches Sugriva seeking his help to find his kidnapped wife Sita, Sugriva sees an opportunity to fulfill his desire. As a condition to look for Rama’s wife, Sugriva asks Rama to help topple Vali. Rama agrees to this condition and forms an alliance with Sugriva. Rama and Sugriva devise a plan to defeat Vali. According to this plan, Sugriva invites Vali for a duel, and during the fight, Rama, who is waiting on the sidelines, kills Vali with an arrow.

The Banteay Srei Temple has a beautifully carved bas-relief that illustrates the Vali-Sugriva fight.

Enchanting apsaras

The middle level of the Angkor Wat is less ornate than the lower level. However, the walls and pillars of the galleries are carved with beautiful bas-reliefs of apsaras and devatas. The images show two such reliefs.

Apsaras in the middle terrace of the Angkor Wat Temple, Siem Reap, Cambodia — Apsaras in the middle terrace

Apsaras carved on the middle level gallery of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Apsaras in the middle terrace

The images show apsaras carved in the middle level. As you can see, they are standing gracefully, each with different postures. They are wearing elegant skirts and beautiful jewelry, including necklaces, armlets, bracelets, and anklets. The dangling earrings reach up to their shoulders, and they look like the flowers of the Kror Sang tree. On their head are the intricately carved three-tipped headdresses (except one on the image on the right). The jewelry and costumes in the carvings showcase the richness of the Khmer culture and reflective of how people used to live in the Khmer era.

Note: There is no equivalent English translation for the Sanskrit word apsara. The closest translation is celestial maiden or nymph. In Indian mythology, apsaras are youthful eternal beauties. According to one myth, they are accomplices of gandharvas, who are celestial musicians. Through their singing and dancing, apsaras entertain the gods. Apsaras are one of the by-products of the Samudra Manthana, which was a collaborative effort by devas (demigods) and asuras (demons) to produce amrita, the nectar of immortality. The victorious devas took them to the court of their king, Indra (i.e., heaven). For more details on the Samudra Manthana, check: Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs.

Inspired by the beauty and elegance of the apsara carvings in the Khmer temples, especially in the Angkor Wat, apsaras make up a significant part of cultural dances (ballets) in Cambodia. They wear similar types of jewelry and costumes, including the majestic headdress’, that appear in the bas-reliefs.

Uppermost terrace

Known as the Bakan, the uppermost terrace is the principal sanctuary of the temple. The access to the Bakan was restricted to the king and high priests. The Bakan symbolizes Mount Meru, which in Hindu mythology is a mythological mountain with five peaks at the center of the Universe and is home to gods and demigods (devas). Mount Meru also appears in Buddhist and Jain texts.

Bakan structure

The uppermost terrace has four equally-sized towers rising from the corners and a taller and bigger tower in the middle. In architectural terms, this forms a quincunx, a geometrical pattern formed by five elements, four of which are placed at the corners and one placed at the center of a square. All the towers have the same conical shape, which symbolizes the bud of a lotus flower sacred in India and Southeast Asia.

From a distance, the towers of Angkor Wat appear similar in shape to the towers of the temples in Prambanan, which were built a few centuries earlier on the island of Java. This goes to show that the Khmer architecture was influenced by the architectures of temples in the neighboring regions rather than India.

Corner towers

The four corner towers are identical in shape and size. Each has two access doorways with steps from the middle terrace corridor. The images below show the views of the corner towers as seen from the middle terrace corridor.

The southeast corner tower on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — The southeast corner tower on the uppermost terrace

Southwest corner tower on the top level of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — The southeast corner tower on the uppermost terrace

Corner towers of Angkor Wat

The image shows the door of one of the corner towers on the uppermost terrace. The door frame is beautifully decorated. The pediment shows a scene from the Battle of Kurukshetra.

Cruciform Cloister

A basin on the uppermost terrace on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia.

At the boundaries of the Bakan are the four galleries, each connecting to a corner tower at both ends. An axial gallery in each cardinal direction perpendicular to the boundary gallery connects that boundary gallery to the central tower. The four boundary galleries and four axial galleries form a cruciform cloister structure, just like the one in the lower level.

The image shows a boundary gallery connected the axial gallery and one of four basins formed by this arrangement.

Entrances to the Bakan

An outer view of an entrance to the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — An outer view of an entrance to the uppermost terrace

Steps to an entrance to the uppermost terrace (Bakan) of Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — An outer view of an entrance to the uppermost terrace

At the middle of each boundary gallery on the outer side is a porch that was used as an entrance. When the temple was built, the Bakan had all the four entrances open. Once the temple became a Buddhist monument, three of the entrances were closed and statues of Buddha were installed on the vestibule.

The image on the left shows the outer view of one of the porches of the entrance as seen from the uppermost terrace itself. On the left, it shows a section of the outer wall of the north gallery ending into an entrance. Also seen on the right are the middle terrace corridor and the north library on the lower level courtyard.

The image on the right is a view from the middle corridor of the steps to the same entrance shown in the above image. As you can see, the steps to enter the Bakan from the middle terrace are steep.

Galleries

Surrounding the uppermost terrace are the galleries. The image on the left shows an inside view of the gallery. Although not as ornate as the middle terrace, some of the walls and pillars have carvings of apsaras .

The left image shows a pillar with intricate and detailed carving of two smiling apsaras with perfect anatomy standing elegantly with the flowers in their hands. As you can see, they are wearing exquisite jewelry on their necks, hands, legs, ears, and around the waists. The dangling earrings reach up to their shoulders, and they look like the flowers of the Kror Sang tree. Adorning their heads are intricately carved three-tipped mukutas (headdresses). Both the apsaras are wearing different but elegant dresses decorated with beautiful flowery patterns.

Apsaras carved on a pillar in the uppermost terrace (Bakan) of the Angkor Wat Temple, Siem Reap, Cambodia — Apsaras carved on a pillar in the Bakan

Gallery on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Apsaras carved on a pillar in the Bakan

Buddha statues

The Bakan has many Buddha statues, which were installed after the Angkor Wat temple was converted to a Buddhist monument.

A statue of sleeping Buddha on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia — A statue of sleeping Buddha on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat Temple

A statue of Buddha on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reao, Cambodia — A statue of sleeping Buddha on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat Temple

The rightmost image shows the Buddha statue seated on a seven-headed serpent (naga) placed on the eastern gallery. Buddha is in a mediating state indicated by his hand gesture (mudra). This statue is an interesting combination of Hinduism and Buddhism. The seven-headed serpent on whom Buddha is seated is the king of nagas known as Seshanaga (a.k.a Adishesha) whom Vishnu often uses as a bed. The sculpture confirms the belief that Buddha is one of the avatars (manifestations) of Vishnu.

Central tower

Center tower on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat temple

The image shows a view of the central tower as seen from the uppermost terrace (i.e., Bakan). This imposing structure is exactly in the middle of the uppermost terrace. The height of the tower is 700 feet from the ground.

Experts believe that King Suryavarman II was buried under this tower. However, excavations under this tower and elsewhere have not discovered a body or significant funerary objects, except for a rectangular stone object, possibly a part of the sarcophagus, and some objects that might have helped a body to be placed in a fetal position. If the grave existed, it was most likely plundered or moved to another location when the temple was converted into a Buddhist monument.

– Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs, Angkor Thom, Bayon, Ta Prohm, Banteay Srei
– Phnom Kulen, Tonlé Sap, Cambodia
– Bali, Prambanan, Prambanan Bas-Reliefs, Borobudur, Indonesia

Banteay Srei Temple

Known for its exceptional beauty, intricate carvings, and fine workmanship, Banteay Srei is a gem among hundreds of temples that dot the Cambodian landscape. Located 16 miles northeast of Siem Reap, it is relatively a small temple complex containing multiple single-story structures. Unlike many other temples in Cambodia, it is not built like a temple-mountain.Dedicated to Shiva, the Banteay Srei Temple has some of the stunningly beautiful bas-reliefs that depict gods, demigods and scenarios based on the episodes from the Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. The bas-reliefs, most of which adorn the pediments, are deeply cut and finely carved. Even after 1000 years, most of the sculptures and bas-reliefs have retained their original sharpness.

A Masterpiece of Khmer Temple Art

Known for its exceptional beauty, intricate carvings, and fine workmanship, Banteay Srei is a gem among hundreds of temples that dot the Cambodian landscape. It is a smaller temple complex containing multiple single-story structures. Unlike many other temples in Cambodia, it is not built like a temple-mountain.

The Banteay Srei Temple has some stunningly beautiful bas-reliefs that depict gods, demigods, and scenes based on the episodes narrated in the Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. The bas-reliefs are deeply cut and finely carved. Even after 1000 years, the carvings have retained their original sharpness.

Unlike most of the other Cambodian temples, Banteay Srei was built predominantly using red sandstone. Because of the color and texture of the sandstone, its carvings appear pleasant and colorful.

Banteay Srei is about 16 miles northeast of Siem Reap and is on the way to the Phnom Kulen mountain range. Many tourists who visit Angkor Wat often miss Banteay Srei because it is not in the Siem Reap region, home to many well-known Hindu/Buddhist temples. You can accomplish the Phnom Kulen and Banteay Srei visits in a single-day trip.

A Bit of History

Banteay Srei is unique in that it is commissioned not by a king (like many other famous temples in the region) but by the courtiers of a king. Yagnavaraha and Vishnukumara were the courtiers who built this temple on the land granted to them by King Rajendravarman. According to an inscription, Yagnavaraha is the grandson of King Harshavarman and the teacher of the future king Jayavarman V. He was known to be a great scholar, philosopher, and philanthropist who fought for justice.

The building of this temple started in 967 CE. The name Banteay Srei is recent, which in Khmer means Citadel of Women or Citadel of Beauty. The name could be referring to the beautiful carvings of women (apsaras and devatas) on the bas-reliefs.

The original name of Banteay Srei was Tribhuvanamaheshwara, which refers to Shiva as the Lord of the Earth, Heaven, and Hell. Note: In Sanskrit, Tribhuvana means three worlds or realms consisting of earth, heaven and hell, and Maheshwara means great god.

The town surrounding the temple used to be known as Isvarapura, which in Sanskrit means Isvara’s town. Isvara is another name for Shiva. After the temple was built, Isvarapura became a town having residents supporting the temple.

Temple Complex

A view of the Banteay Srei temple from the outer enclosure — A view of the Banteay Srei Temple from the outer enclosure

As mentioned, the Banteay Srei Temple was surrounded by a town. The entrance to the temple is through the town gopura (gate), located on the east side. The town gate opens into a long causeway, which leads to the main entrance to the temple.

The Banteay Srei Temple complex has three rectangular concentric enclosures built on the east-west axis. The main temple structures are in the innermost enclosure. The innermost and the middle enclosures are close to each other and are surrounded by brick walls. Separating the outer and middle enclosures is a moat.

The entrance to the temple complex is on the east side and is through a gopura built with an ornate door an exquisitely carved pediment above it. The door opens into the causeway, which leads to the eastern entrance to the outer enclosure.

Gate and Causeway

Entrance to the Banteay Srei Temple complex located near Siem Reap, Cambodia — Entrance to the temple complex

Indra riding Airavata carved on the pediment of the gopura located at the entrance of Banteay Srei — Entrance to the temple complex

The gate at the eastern entrance to the temple

Causeway from the entrance to the middle enclosure of the Banteay Srei temple — Causeway from the entrance to the middle enclosure

The gopura (gate) is mostly made of red sandstone. The door frame and the pediment are beautifully carved. The bas-relief on the pediment depicts Indra riding his vehicle three-headed elephant called Airavata. At each end of the pediment is Makara, a mythical sea creature, spewing multi-headed naga, a mythical serpent.

According to an inscription, this gate used to be the entrance to Isvarapura. It is believed that a wooden wall existed surrounding Isvarapura.

The causeway that leads to the outer enclosure is about 67 meters long. There are 32 boundary marking stones lined along the path.

Outer Enclosure

The outer enclosure measures 110 x 95 sq m, and a laterite wall encloses it. The original construction had the gopuras in the middle of the east and west walls. Only the west gopura exists now, and part of the east gopura is lying on the ground where the original gopura once stood.

The image on the left shows this structure. It is the east-facing pediment of this gopura, and the west-facing pediment is on display at a museum in France.

As you can see from the image, the bas-relief on this pediment depicts Ravana abducting Sita, a well-known episode in Ramayana in which Ravana, a rakshasa and the King of Lanka, kidnaps Sita, Rama’s wife.

Gopura on the west side of the outer enclosure of the Banteay Srei temple. — Gopura on the west side of the outer enclosure

The image shows the west gopura with an ornate pediment. The beautifully carved bas-relief on the pediment depicts Shiva and his consort Parvati (a.k.a Uma) seated on his vehicle Nandi, the bull.

Under Nandi is Kaala, the time demon often associated with Shiva, who, according to Hindu mythology, is the timekeeper of the universe and controls the time cycles by creation, preservation, and destruction.

Surrounding the bas-relief is the decorative carving of Makara, a mythical sea creature, disgorging yakshas from its heads on the left and right ends.

Note: Yakshas in Hindu mythology are the demigods who protect natural treasures, such as water and forests.

Middle Enclosure

The middle enclosure measures 38 x 42 sq m and has gopuras on the east and west sides connected by a brick wall, some portions of which have collapsed. The causeway mentioned before leads to this enclosure, and the moat filled with water on either side of this causeway surrounds this enclosure.

The gopuras on the middle enclosure are ornate with exquisitely carved artwork of creative patterns and narrative bas-reliefs.

East Gopura

The image shows the east-facing view of the eastern wall with a gopura in the middle. As you can see, it is an elaborate structure with three doorways and extending it on either side is the brick wall that surrounds this enclosure.

Gopura on the east side of the middle enclosure of the Banteay Srei temple — Gopura on the east side

The approach to the middle enclosure is through a causeway, i.e., the mud path in front of the gopura. A small part of the moat can be seen in the image on either side of this causeway. A narrow terrace surrounds the wall on its outer side, separating the moat and the wall.

Just like the other gopuras in the temple, the east gopura has two facades: east facing and west facing. The façade shown in the image is the former. The middle door of this gopura is flanked on either side by a false window and a door. The two identical structures visible behind the gopura are the libraries situated inside the inner enclosure. The structures within the middle and inner enclosures harmoniously blend with the surroundings.

The image shows the pediment above the middle door. In the center of this highly ornate pediment is a triangular area with a beautifully carved bas-relief depicting Kaala, a time monster associated with Shiva as he is the timekeeper of the universe, and an unidentified deity above Kaala.

The rest of this triangular area is filled with foliage. Enclosing this area is an exquisitely carved artwork of symmetrical patterns.

Gaja Lakshmi

The west-facing pediment depicts Gaja Lakshmi – one of the eight avatars of Lakshmi- seated on a lotus flower flanked by two gajas (elephants ) performing abhisheka (showering with water and food) and riding Uluka the Owl. Uluka is often associated with Lakshmi, but not always as her vahana (vehicle).

Lakshmi is Vishnu’s wife and goddess of wealth in Hindu mythology. She is known as Ashtalakshmi because of her eight avatars (manifestations), each symbolizing an aspect of wealth. The Gaja Lakshmi avatar symbolizes wealth through strength. According to a myth, Gaja Lakshmi is a by-product of Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk).

Note: Angkor Wat has a bas-relief depicting the story of the Samudra Manthana carved on the eastern gallery located at the lower level of the temple.

West Gopura

Vali - Sugriva fight depicted on the west side gopura of the middle enclosure of the Banteay Srei Temple, Cambodia — Vali – Sugriva fight depicted on the west gopura

Kala (time demon) depicted on the lintel of the west side gopura of the middle enclosure — Vali – Sugriva fight depicted on the west gopura

Gopura on the west side of the middle enclosure

The pediment depicts the fight between the brothers Vali and Sugriva and Rama is trying to help Sugriva. This popular theme from Hindu epic Ramayana is portrayed in many Hindu temples in India and Southeast Asia.

Surrounding Walls

Walls of inner and middle enclosures of the Banteay Srei temple

The inner and middle enclosures are much closer than the outer and middle enclosures. Both the inner and outer enclosures are surrounded by brick walls. As seen in the image below, a narrow empty space separates the enclosures.

Inner Enclosure

This is where the main temple structures are located. The enclosure measures 24 x 24 sq m with a brick wall surrounding it. Built inside this enclosure are the main temple structures, including two libraries and three sanctuary towers. Attached to the middle sanctuary tower is mantapa, a covered hall with an entrance facing east and side entrances facing north and south.

Structures in the innermost enclosure - A view from the northeast side of the Banteay Srei Temple, located in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Structures in the innermost enclosure – A view from the northeast side

The image shows the view of the innermost enclosure from the northeast side. The rightmost structure is the north library and next to it is the east gopura. The structure that has two kneeling dwarapalakas (guardians of the door) in front is the mantapa. The tips of the three sanctuary towers are seen at the far end of the image.

Structures in the inner enclosure as seen from the southwest side of the Banteay Srei Temple — Structures in the innermost enclosure – A view from the southwest side

The image above shows the view of the innermost enclosure from the southwest side. The leftmost structure is the south library and next to it is the east gopura. The view shows the west-facing facades of these structures. The three sanctuary towers are in the front.

Structures in the inner enclosure as seen from the northwest side of the Banteay Srei Temple — Structures in the innermost enclosure – A view from the northwest side

The image shows the view of the innermost enclosure from the northwest side. The rightmost structure is the north library and next to it is the east gopura. The view shows the west-facing facades of these structures. The three sanctuary towers are in the front.

Gopuras

The image shows the east-facing facade of the east gopura. The door frame and the pediment of this gopura are beautifully decorated.

Banteay Srei: Gopura and entrance to the inner enclosure of the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia — Gopura and entrance to the inner enclosure

Banteay Srei: Shiva Tandava Nritya (Shiva's Cosmic Dance) carved into the pediment of the east gopura at the inner enclosure of the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia. — Shiva Tandava Nritya (Shiva’s Cosmic Dance)

Banteay Srei: Nandi in front of the east gopura at the inner enclosure of the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia — Shiva Tandava Nritya (Shiva’s Cosmic Dance)

The pediment depicts the scene Shiva Tandava Nritya, i.e., Shiva performing his cosmic dance of creation, preservation, and destruction.

The lintel depicts Indra, the dikpala (guardian) of the east direction, riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. Each Airavata head is shown as a monster-like figure attached to the elephant head. As you can see from the image below, Indra, whose head is missing, is holding the elephant trunk with the right hand, and the monster head with the left hand. The other two Airavata heads are at the ends.

A damaged statue of Nandi is in front of the gopura.

Mysterious Libraries

Built like mini shrines, the libraries are the unique elements of the Khmer temple architecture. Although their exact purpose is still a mystery, the likely intention of building them was to use them as repositories of manuscripts. It is worth noting that there is no concept of libraries in the architectures of Hindu temples in India.

The Hindu religious texts, which include four Vedas, two epics and 18 Puranas, are large and numerous. The manuscripts of these texts were likely brought from India and were considered precious and sacred. The libraries were likely built to preserve them in a safe place and were designed like shrines to allow people to worship them. However, there is no evidence that the libraries were ever used as repositories of manuscripts.

Located near the entrance of the inner enclosure, the two identically designed library structures, one on the north and the other on the south, are equidistant from the center. In other words, they are like the mirror images of each other.

They are aligned along the east-west direction with ornate facades facing east and west, each of which has a beautifully decorated door, lintel and pediment. The facade facing west has the doorway to enter the building, whereas on the east side, there is just a false door built only for decorative purposes.

The bas-reliefs on the pediments depict stories from the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

South Library

The south library is dedicated to Shiva. Both the east and west facades depict stories about Shiva.

East Facade

The east-facing pediment depicts an episode from Ramayana in which Ravana with his 20 hands tries to lift Mount Kailash, the heavenly abode of Shiva and his consort Parvati (a.k.a Uma) as Shiva sits calmly with his consort Parvati on his lap.

East facing facade of the south library situated in the inner enclosure of Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia. — East facing facade of the south library

Ravana Shaking Mount Kailash

According to the story, Ravana was enraged by Shivas’ vehicle Nandi who did not let Ravana’s plane (Pushpak Vimana) to pass over Shiva’s abode. When Ravana tries to lift Mount Kailash, Shiva holds it down, which enrages Ravana further and he starts shaking the mountain.

West Facade

The west-facing pediment depicts a story from Shiva Purana in which Kama (a.k.a Kamadeva), the god of love and carnal desire, strikes Shiva with Kamabana (Kama’s arrows) to arouse passion and desire in Shiva, who is in the state of meditation.

According to the story, after the death of his wife Sati, Shiva goes into a state of meditation to grieve her death. This results in a great imbalance in the world. Meanwhile, Sati is reborn as Parvati, and all the gods want Shiva to marry Parvati. Sensing this need, Indra sends Kama to arouse passion and desire in Shiva for him to be interested in Parvati.

West-facing south library facade

North Library

The north library is dedicated to Vishnu. Both the east and west facades depict stories about Krishna, who is one of the avatars (manifestation) of Vishnu. The library is built on a raised platform with two levels.

East Facade

The doorway of the facade has a beautifully decorated false door flanked by pilasters. Because this facade is facing east, Indra, who is the dikpala (guardian) of the east, is the theme of the carvings on both the lintel and pediment.

Check the list of Ashta Dikpalas, the eight guardians of directions.

The bas-relief on the lintel depicts Indra riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. As you can see from the image, Indra is in the middle sitting above an elephant head. At each end of the lintel, there is an elephant with a human-like figure sitting on it.

As you can see from the image, there are three pediments. The innermost is the narrowest and is in the front, and the outermost is the widest and is on the back. Each pediment is enclosed by a finely carved creeper which is resting on an intricately decorated pillar.

East facing facade of the north library situated in the inner enclosure of Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia. — East facing facade of the north library

Carved into the lowermost pediment is a narrative bas-relief depicting a well-known episode in Mahabharata, Burning of the Khandava Forest. Here is the story in brief:

Burning of the Khandava Forest

According to the story, the fire god Agni wanted to burn the Kandhava Forest because of a stomach ailment. Disguised as a brahmin, he went to Arjuna, one of the Pandavas, and requested that he was hungry and needed to be satiated. Because Arjuna could not refuse a request from a brahmin, he agreed to Agni’s request. Agni then revealed himself and said to Krishna he was hungry, and the only way he could satiate his hunger was to help him consume the Khandava Forest by letting him burn it. Arjuna reluctantly agreed to help him.

The Kandhava Forest was also the home of Takshaka, the king of nagas (snakes), and Maya, the architect of the asuras. When Agni started the fire, Takshaka was not in the forest, but his family was inside. So, he begged his friend Indra, king of the devas (demigods) and heaven, to help them to escape the fire. Indra agreed and used his power to bring rain to the forest to douse the fire. Arjuna tried to stop the rain by creating a layer of arrows. Meanwhile, Krishna stayed on the other side of the forest and helped Arjuna stop the rain.

While this battle was going on, Takshaka’s wife swallowed her son Ashvasena and tried to fly out of the forest. Realizing that she was trying to escape with her son, Arjuna cut her head off with his arrows but could not prevent Ashvasena from escaping the forest.

Maya also escaped the forest and then sought asylum from Arjuna. Eventually, Agni consumed the entire Khandava Forest and cured his stomach ailment.

Burning of the Khandava Forest - An episode from Mahabharata depicted on the east-facing north library pediment of Banteay Srei in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Burning of the Khandava Forest

This is one of the most beautiful and detailed bas-reliefs in the temple. On the top is Indra riding his vehicle Airavata and trying to bring down the rain on the forest. The layer underneath Indra depicts flowing water, giving an impression of rain coming down. On the left is Arjuna shooting arrows to stop the rain. Below the water, there are two layers of arrows, created by Arjuna, preventing the water from coming down. On the right is Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, holding his signature weapon, Sudarshana Chakra, helping Arjuna. Between Arjuna and Krishna is the forest with a chaotic scene of animals, Takshaka’s family, and Maya and other asuras trying to escape the fire.

Notice the two multi-headed nagas in the middle of the arrow layers. These are Takshaka’s wife and their son Ashvasena. As mentioned in the story, Ashvasena escaped Arjuna’s arrows through the brave action of his mother, who swallowed him to shield him from the barrage of arrows. Although she died in the ordeal, she enabled Ashvasena to escape the fire.

West Facade

The west pediment shows Krishna killing Kamsa, a popular theme portrayed in many Hindu temples in Cambodia and Indonesia (See Prambanan and Prambanan Bas-Reliefs).

Krishna killing Kamsa, a scene from Mahabharata depicted on the west-facing facade of the north library — Krishna killing Kamsa

Krishna killing Kamsa - An episode from Mahabharata depicted on the west-facing pediment of the north library — Krishna killing Kamsa

West-facing north library facade

Sanctuary Towers (Prasats)

Aligned along the north-south direction, the three sanctuary towers in the inner enclosure are close to each other and symbolically represent the Hindu Trinity, Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma. The sanctuary towers are the most sacred buildings in the temple.

Each tower has an inner sanctum, i.e., a chamber with the deity. Because Banteay Srei is a Shiva temple, Shiva is considered the dominant god of the trinity. The middle tower is dedicated to Shiva, and to show his dominance, it is taller than the other two. Its inner sanctum likely had a Shivalinga or a statue of Shiva. For this reason, it is taller than the other two towers, which likely had statues of Vishnu and Brahma.

The south and north sanctuary towers have three outward facades, each of which has a door with multi-level pediments and a lintel. The entrance is only on the east side and the rest three facades have false doors. The central tower has only one outward facade, which is on the west side.

Central Sanctuary Tower

The central tower is home to a Shiva Linga inside the inner chamber. It is taller than the other two. There is a mantapa in front of it on the east side. The pediment on the west side depicts Varuna riding three hamsas (sacred swans), the north side depicts Kubera, the south side depicts Yama riding a buffalo and the east side depicts Indra riding Airavata.

Mantapa

The mantapa is a covered hall that leads to the central sanctuary tower and is attached to the east facade of the central sanctuary tower.

Mantapa attached to the central sanctuary tower of the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia — North wall of the mantapa

The images above show the north and south facing walls of the mantapa. As you can see, the design is similar but the carvings are different. The he doorway in middle and leading to the doorway is a stone staircase on both sides. Guarding the entrance are the two squatting dwarapalakas (guardians of the door), who have human bodies and monkey faces.

In the north wall image, the staircase on the right leads to the east-facing entrance of the north sanctuary tower and is guarded by the bird-faced dwarapalakas. Likewise in the south wall image, the staircase on the left leads to the east-facing entrance of the south sanctuary tower, guarded by lion-faced dwarapalakas.

South Sanctuary Tower

The east-facing facade of the south sanctuary tower facades

The images show the east and south facing facade of the south sanctuary tower. The bottom pediment of the east facing facade depicts Shiva and his consort Parvati (a.k.a Uma) sitting on his vehicle Nandi. The lintel shows Indra riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. The doorway is beautifully decorated. On both sides of the door, devatas are guarding the door and in the front two dwarapalakas (guardians of the door) guard the door. The entrance to this structure is on this facade and the facades on the other three sides have false doors.

The bottom pediment and the lintel of the south facing facade depicts Yama, the god of death and justice, riding his vehicle male buffalo. The doorway with a false door is beautifully decorated. On both sides of the door, devatas are guarding the door.

Carved into the pediment is Kaala (time monster) devouring an elephant, and there is an unidentified deity on top of Kaala. The lintel also depicts Kaala.

North Sanctuary Tower

The images above shows the east and north facing facades of the north sanctuary tower. The bottom-most scene on the pediment most likely depicts Bhima killing Jarasandha, the king of Magadha, by splitting his body into two. The lintel shows Indra riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. This is the only entrance to the sanctuary tower and the other three sides have false doors. It is guarded by two squatting dwarapalakas (guardians of the door) who have human bodies and faces of mythical bird Garuda who is Vishnu’s vehicle. The door frame is beautifully decorated and it is flanked on either side by devatas standing on top of hamsas (swans).

Unlike the east-facing facade, the north-facing facade has a false door, which is decorated with beautiful artwork. On both sides of the door, beautifully sculpted devatas are guarding the door. The bottom pediment depicts Kubera carried by yakshas and the lintel shows Bhima killing Jarasandha, the king of Magadha, by splitting his body into two.

The image above shows the west-facing facade of the north sanctuary tower. The bottom pediment depicts Varuna riding three hamsas (swans) and the lintel depicts Kubera carried by a yaksha (Kubera’s vehicle is a man or yaksha). The doorway is beautifully decorated. The door is a false door. On both sides of the door, devatas are guarding the door.

Cambodia

Cambodia has a glorious history and rich heritage. Hinduism and Buddhism flourished here for many centuries. As a result, it is home to numerous religious monuments, including Angkor Wat, an architectural masterpiece.

The original name of Cambodia is Kamboja, which is the name of one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (great tribes) that existed in ancient India between the 6th and 4th century BCE. The original Kamboja tribes controlled the region around the Hindu Kush, a mountain range passing through present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is believed that some Kamboja tribes moved to Southeast Asia and were responsible for establishing a new Kamboja country.

Kamboja became Kampuchea in the Khmer language. When the French colonized Cambodia, Kampuchea became Cambodge. The current name of Cambodia is an English version of Cambodge. The dreaded Khmer Rouge made Kampuchea the official name, but after their defeat, the official name reverted to Cambodia.

Located in the Indochinese Peninsula, Cambodia borders Thailand to the west and northwest, Laos to the northeast and Vietnam to the east. It has a coastline of about 275 miles along the Gulf of Thailand. The Mekong River flows through Cambodia. It joins Tonlé Sap, a freshwater lake near Phnom Penh.

Places to Visit

Siem Reap

Siem Reap was the center of the Khmer civilization and home to numerous temples and monuments, including Angkor Wat, Bayon, Angkor Thom, Ta Prohm.

Lake Tonlé Sap

Located 30 miles south of Siem Reap, Tonlé Sap is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. Because of the seasonal changes, its size fluctuates. During the dry season, the lake shrinks as the water flows out of the lake into the rivers. During the wet season, the lake expands as the water flows into the lake from the rivers, and the water level rises as much as 30 feet. Thus, it acts as a natural reservoir.

The maximum dimensions of the lake are, length – 260 miles, width – 62 miles, and depth – 33 feet

Tonlé Sap is home to many floating villages inhabited mostly by the Vietnamese and Cham people. They earn their livelihood by fishing and crocodile farming.

In addition to floating houses, these villages have floating schools, shops, and even churches. See the images above.

Phnom Kulen National Park

The Phnom Kulen National Park consists of the Kulen mountains, Kbal Spean River and waterfalls.

The Kbal Spean River is also known as the Sahasralinga River (River of one thousand lingas) because one thousand lingas are carved on its bed. A 16th-century pagoda named Preah Ang Thom is located on the way to Phnom Kulen. It is famous for the statue of Sleeping Buddha. The Banteay Srei Temple is on the way to the Kulen mountains.

Phenom Penh

Phenom Penh is capital of Cambodia and home to the National Museum of Cambodia, which houses cultural treasures of Cambodia.

Indian Influence

The cultural influence of India is very deep in Cambodia. Hinduism arrived in Cambodia sometime in the first century CE. Buddhism arrived much later.

The earliest record of Indian influence came from the Chinese historical texts, the rulers of the Kingdom of Funan worshiped Vishnu and Shiva.

History

The early accounts of Cambodian history originate from the Chinese historical texts, which include reports from travelers, traders, and diplomats who traveled to the region around the Mekong Delta.

Funan is the name given by the Chinese to the Indianised kingdom that ruled the region centered around the Mekong Delta from the first century CE. We don’t know what the locals called their kingdom, but there is some evidence to suggest that they called it Suvarna Bhoomi (Land of Gold). It is probable that suvarna became funan when it was translated into Chinese.

The Funan Kingdom lasted until the 6th century. Succeeding the Funan Kingdom was another Indianised kingdom called Chenla, which ruled for two more centuries before the mighty Khmer Empire rose from nowhere and lasted for six centuries.

Khmer Empire

Although Cambodia was referred to as a single kingdom in the Chinese texts, according to experts, it was an actually a collection of small kingdoms – more like the Greek city-states- who fought among themselves. There was no centralized power structure that controlled the kingdoms. The rise of the Khmer Empire changed all that.

The founding of the Empire

In the late eighth century, King Jayavarman II was ruling the kingdom known as Kambuja with its capital Indrapura situated in the Mekhong Delta. He swore allegiance to King Samaratungga of the Shylendra dynasty in the present-day Java. It is worth pointing out that King Samaratungga was known for initiating the building of Borobudur situated near present-day Yogyakarta in Indonesia.

It is believed that King Jayavarman II spent his early years in Java with the Shylendras, who were Buddhists, and got the first-hand experience of their governance and learned about their religion and culture.

Once he came back, he used skills that he learned in Java to create his own kingdom. He believed in his own greatness and eventually revolted against Shylendras and succeeded. In a grand ceremony at the Kulen mountains (Mahendraparvata) in 802 CE, King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence from the Shylendras, the rulers from the island of Java, and at the same time declared himself a Chakravarty (King of Kings or Emperor) of Khmer Empire.

King Jayavarman II started a new brand of Hinduism known as the Devaraja Cult. According to this belief system, the king is a devaraja (god-king in Sanskrit) who is divine and allowed to rule with divine authority. The Khmer people practiced their religion by mixing their ancestral belief system with Hindu traditions and philosophy.

Early Years

King Jayavarman II soon moved his capital to a place called Hariharalaya, which is present-day Roluos located 10 miles east of Siem Reap. He spent his years expanding his territory, and there no evidence to suggest that engaged in building monuments.

King Jayavarman II died in 835CE and posthumously conferred the title of Parameswara (Supreme God). After his death, his throne was passed to his son Jayavarman III (835-877), who not only engaged in expanding the Khmer territory but also started building many temples and monuments, the prominent among them is Bakong in Hariharalaya. King Jayavarman III (877-886) was succeeded by Indravarman I, who kept Hariharalaya as their capital and expanded the territory further.

State of Turmoil

The Khmer Empire was relatively peaceful until King Indravarman I died, but his death resulted in turmoil, which lasted for 3 years.

Rise of Yashovarman I

After the death of King Indravarman I, a violent power struggle ensued between the crown prince and his brother. Eventually, the crown price lost and his brother Yashovarman I (889-915) declared himself the king.

The power struggle led to the destruction of the palace in Hariharalaya. When Yashovarman I became the king, he decided to move the capital from Hariharalaya. He eventually built a new capital near Angkor Wat and named it Yashodharapura, and thus began the glorious history of Angkor, the central point of the Khmer Empire.

During his 26 years of rule, Yashovarman I commissioned many building projects, including many temples. His major accomplishments are the construction of East Barray reservoir and the temple on top of Phnom Bakheng, a hill near Angkor.

Gopura at the center of Bakeng Hill in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Gopura at the center of Bakheng Hill in Siem Reap, Cambodia

After the death Yashovarman I in 905 CE, his son Harshavarman I (905-923) succeeded him, who was followed by his other son Isvaravarman (923-928).

The death of Isvaravarman I threw the Khmer Empire into a state of turmoil again. The details of what happened after his death are sketchy. Isvaravarman I was succeeded by Jayavarman IV (928-941), who was neither his son nor relative but a king of a nearby principality who swore allegiance to the Khmer kings.

After the death of Jayavarman IV, there was a power struggle again, and eventually, Harshavarman II (941-944) succeeded him. Even though he was a son of Jayavarman IV, he was not the crown prince. Harshavarman II lasted only for three years and was succeeded by his cousin Rajendravarman (944-968).

During Rajendravarman’s 24 years rule, he consolidated the Khmer Empire and expanded its territory. After his death, his son Jayavarman V succeeded him.

Jayavarman V – The Intellectual King

By the time King Jayavarman V (968- 1001) came to power, the Khmer Empire has become very powerful and prosperous. He was an intellectual king who enjoyed the company of scholars. His 32-year rule was relatively peaceful.

He was responsible for building several temples in and around Angkor. However, Banteay Srei, a temple complex famous for its exceptional beauty, was built by Yajnavaraha, the chief priest of the court and a close confidant of the king.

A beautifully decorated pediment of the east gopura of the middle enclosure with a bas-relief depicting time monster Kala.

Golden Age

Suryavarman II – The Radical King

The power and influence of the Khmer Empire peaked during the reign of Suryavarman II (1113 – 1150), who is responsible for the greatest achievement of the Khmer civilization, Angkor Wat. In addition to Angkor Wat, he built many smaller temples, including Beng Mealea, Banteay Samre.

Diplomacy

Suryavarman II understood the importance of diplomacy. He established great relationships with the Chinese and Indians. He frequently sent emissaries with tributes to the Chinese emperor and kings of Chola dynasty in Southern India.

Military Campaigns

Suryavarman II was also an expansionist. He launched many military campaigns, not all of them ended successfully. He had a love-hate relationship with the neighboring Champa kingdom. They allied with him in some of the campaigns against the other neighboring kingdom in Vietnam.

Breaking with Tradition

King Suryavarman II was a radical king who broke with the traditions of his predecessors in many ways. Before he came to power, Shiva was the dominant god of the Hindu trinity and the kings mainly worshiped Shiva built numerous Shiva temples. King Suryavarman II broke with this tradition and made Vishnu the dominant god of the Trinity and became a follower of Vishnu. Angkor Wat was dedicated to Vishnu when he built it.

Bas-relief of King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia — King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat

King Suryavarman II is believed to have died between 1145 and 1150 CE during the military campaign against Champa. Towards the end of his reign, the Khmer empire became weaker as the building projects and the frequent military campaigns had a taken their toll on the economy of the empire.

After his death, King Suryavarman II was given the title Paramavishnuloka. It literally means the supreme world of Vishnu in Sanskrit, but likely meant he became the supreme leader of the world of Vishnu.

King Suryavarman II was succeeded by his cousin Daranindravarman II (1150 -1160) and a period of discord in the empire began.

Jayavarman VII – The Benevolent King

Jayavarman VII (1122-1218), son of Daranindravarman II, was one of the most powerful kings of the Khmer Empire. He came to power in 1181 after defeating the Champas, the arch-enemy of the Khmers who ransacked Yashodharapura. He asserted his power and united all the factions that were weakening the Khmers.

In his long reign of 37 years, he commissioned numerous Buddhist temples, including Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom and Bayon. As a devout Buddhist, he deeply cared about his subjects. He centralized his administration and built roads to connect the provinces of his kingdom. He built numerous hospitals and rest houses along the roads.

A smiling face carved on the upper level tower of the Bayon temple — A smiling face carved on the upper-level tower of the Bayon Temple

Religion

The majority of Cambodians are Buddhists. The official religion of Cambodia is Theravada Buddhism, which is one of the three main Buddhist traditions (the other two being Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna). The Theravada tradition started in Sri Lanka and spread all over Southeast Asia.

Although the majority of Cambodians are Buddhists, they worship some Hindu deities. Many Hindu and Buddhist monuments exist side by side in Cambodia. The reason being the Khmer rulers frequently switched the state religion between Hinduism and Buddhism.

The stone sculpture shown below is a Shiva Linga located near a Buddhist temple on the way to the Phnom Kulen mountain. Shiva Linga is an abstract representation of Shiva, one of the Hindu Trinity, and worshiped mainly by Hindus.

Note: Similar symbols are worshiped all over the world in ancient times. For example, Omphalos in Delphi, Greece.

Cham People

The Cham are an ethnic minority in Cambodia. The ancestors of the Cham people belonged to Champa, the ancient Hindu Kingdom that flourished in the present day Vietnam.

The Khmer and Cham were neighbors, but often rivals. The bas-relief in the Bayon Temple depicts a scene from the naval battle fought between the Khmer and Cham sometime in 1181 CE.

The majority of the Cham people in Cambodia are Muslim. A small number of Chams still practice Hinduism of their ancestors. Besides the Balinese Hindus, the Chams are the only group that practices Hinduism in Southeast Asia.

Language

Khmer is the official language and is spoken widely in Cambodia. It is written in the Khmer script, which is based on an archaic form of Grantha script known as Pallava Grantha used in South India.

Note: The Dravidian languages, such as Tamil and Malayalam, use the Grantha script.

Currency

The Riel is the currency of Cambodia. The ISO code for the Cambodian Riel is KHR and the symbol is ៛ (Unicode U+17DB).

The banknote denominations are: 50, 100, 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 100,000 riels. The coin denominations are: 50,100, 200, 500 riels.

Cambodian banknotes

The Cambodians banknotes reflect the pride in their heritage. The 2000 Riel bill displays a beautiful gopura from the Banteay Srei Temple, 1000 Riel bill shows the south entrance to Angkor Thom, 500 Riel bill proudly displays the front view of Angkor Wat.

The US Dollar is accepted as a currency in Cambodia. The exchange rate hovers around 4000 KHR to 1 US$.

Rural Cambodia

Cambodia is a scenic country. The majority of Cambodians engage in agriculture.

Lotus Farming

The lotus flower is considered sacred by the Hindus as well as Buddhists. It also plays a significant role in the Cambodian economy. The lotus plants are farmed commercially in Cambodia. The lotus farms like the ones shown below are a familiar scene in rural Cambodia.

The lotus flower, its fruit, and seeds are used in a variety of products. The fibers extracted from the stems of the lotus flower are used in textiles. The lotus seeds are edible and are also used in many commercial products, including balms and moisturizers.

Related Pages
– Angkor Wat, Angkor WatBas-Reliefs, Angkor Thom, Bayon, Ta Prohm, Banteay Srei
– Phnom Kulen, Tonlé Sap

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Navaranga – Hoysala classic design

Navaranga design

Exquisite interior

Mohini pillar

Narasimha pillar

Highly ornate exterior

Main entrance – Grand and magnificent

Mini shrines

Hoyasala lanchana (emblem)

Manmatha and Rathi on the door jambs

Garuda and Narasimha on the pediment

Jālandharas- Perforated stone windows

South entrance

North entrance

Exterior wall

Maha Vishnu

Avatars of Vishnu on a frieze

Bracket figures

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Narrative and exquisitely carved

Elaborate bass-reliefs on the lower-level gallery

West Gallery, South Section: Battle of Kurukshetra

Death of Bhishma

Raging Battle

South Gallery, West Section: Procession of King Suryavarman II

Suryavarman II as the King

Suryavarman II as the Commander-in-Chief

A Commander

Other Participants

South Gallery, East Section: Swargas and Narakas (Heavens and Hells)

Yama’s Court

Narakas – Punishing the Sinners

East Gallery, South Section: Samudra Manthana

East Gallery, North Section: Vishnu’s Victory over Asuras

North Gallery, East Section: Krishna’s Victory over Banasura

Legend of Banasura

North Gallery, West Section: Battle between Gods and Asuras

West Gallery, North Section: Battle of Lanka

Raging Battle between Rakshashas Vs. Vanara Sené (Army of Monkeys)

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