Carved into the red sandstone cliffs overlooking Agastya Lake, the cave temples of Badami are masterpieces of Early Chalukya temple art. Built between the 6th and 8th centuries CE, these rock-cut shrines feature intricate sculptures and elegant mantapa-style architecture. Together, they represent one of the finest examples of early Hindu and Jain cave temples in India.
Carved out of a red sandstone hill overlooking the beautifulย Agastya Lake, the four cave temples of Badami are great works of religious art and a showcase of Chalukya temple architecture. Because of their stunningly beautiful carvingsโenhanced by the color and pleasant texture of the red sandstoneโthey stand out among the cave temples of India. Visiting them is a fascinating experience.
The rock-cut cave temples were constructed by meticulously carving out the stone material from the rock to create beautiful structures, sculptures, and sculptural reliefs. It is mind-boggling how the ancient Indians managed to carve such magnificent temples out of rocks without the aid of sophisticated machinery or tools.
A Bit of History
Built by the Badami Chalukyas between the 6th and 8th century CE, these rock-cut cave temples are the forerunners of the religious monuments built in Southern India. Besides these cave temples, Chalukyas built many freestanding temples in and aroundย Badami. The dynasties that followed continued this tradition, and temple building flourished across the region. Hundreds of beautiful temples, big and small, dedicated to different gods and goddesses, now dot the landscape of Karnataka and the surrounding regions.
Overview of the Cave Complex
Built next to each other and connected via stone staircases, the four cave temples are labeled Cave 1, Cave 2, Cave 3, and Cave 4, based on the sequence of their approach from the main entrance to the temple complex. In other words, you would visit Cave 1 first and Cave 4 last.
The chronological order of their construction is not known because of the lack of inscriptions. Only Cave 3 has inscription detailing its dating. Nevertheless, it is generally believed that they were excavated in the same sequence as their approach.
Mantapa-Style Architecture
Each rock-cut cave temple has a courtyard, with the temple structure elevated above it. The faรงades of all four temples are rectangular, with a central flight of steps leading to the interior. When viewed from the courtyard, the rectangular faรงade appears as though it is embedded within a massive rock face. Within this faรงade, a row of pillars extends from the base to the ceiling of the temple.
All four caves follow the mantapa-style architectural layout, consisting of an inner sanctum and three distinct sections.
The garbhagriha (inner sanctum) is located at the rear of the cave, preceded by three successive pillared halls: the antarala (ante-chamber), the sabhamantapa (main hall), and the mukhamantapa (verandah).
Garbhagriha (Inner Sanctum): The garbhagriha is a small chamber carved into the rock at the rear of the cave. This is where the principal deity of the temple is housed.
Antarala (Ante-chamber): The antarala is a small hall between the garbhagriha and the sabhamantapa. It serves as a transitional space where rituals or offerings may be performed before entering the garbhagriha. A short flight of steps leads from the antarala into the sanctum.
Sabhamantapa (Congregation Hall): The sabhamantapa is a large hall adjoining the antarala, supported by rows of pillars. It serves as a congregation space where devotees gather before proceeding to worship. The hall shares a row of pillars with the antarala on the sanctum side and with the mukhamantapa on the courtyard side.
Mukhamantapa (Verandah or Porch): The mukhamantapa is a narrow hall between the sabhamantapa and the entrance. The squarish pillars on the side facing the courtyard are visible on the cave facade. This hall is often the most ornate part of the cave, with narrative reliefs carved on the lateral walls and ceiling depicting stories related to the templeโs theme.
The Four Cave Temples at a Glance
Each of the four cave temples at Badami is dedicated to a different deity or religious tradition and contains distinctive sculptural reliefs depicting important mythological themes.
Facades of the four cave temples of Badami
The following table provides a quick overview of the caves, their dedications, and their carvings.
Situated on the eastern side of the Patio de la Monterรญa and next to the glamorous Pedro I Palace in the Real Alcรกzar complex, Casa de Contrataciรณn is an unremarkable Renaissance-style building. By its appearance, it is hard to imagine that the decisions made here changed the course of history. It was here many famous and infamous seafarers got approval and funding for their expeditions and brought back the looted riches from the New World. Many European countries who followed in the footsteps of Casa de Contrataciรณn to create their trade organizations – such as the East India companies – eventually ended up colonizing a large part of the world, to the detriment of indigenous people and their culture all over the world.
The original building that housed the Casa de Contrataciรณn had three halls, two of which have been well-preserved. These are the Admiral’s Hall and the Hall of Audiences. This page describes them with images of their interior and the paintings on display on their walls.
A building of great historical significance
Situated on the eastern side of the Patio de la Monterรญa and next to the glamorous Pedro I Palace is a building that is of great historical significance to the entire world. The decisions made in this unremarkable building changed the course of history. It was home to the first headquarters of the Casa de Contrataciรณn (House of Trade), an organization established in Seville to control trade in the Americas. It was here many famous and infamous seafarers got approval and funding for their expeditions and brought back the looted riches from the New World. Many European nations who followed in the footsteps of Casa de Contrataciรณn to create their own trade organizations – such as the East India companies – eventually ended up colonizing a large part of the world, to the detriment of indigenous peoples and their cultures all over the world.
The Casa de Contrataciรณn building is part of Real Alcรกzar of Seville, a large complex consisting of palaces, administrative buildings, and gardens built/rebuilt by different cultures from the middle ages to the modern era. Designated in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site โ along with the Seville Cathedral and the General Archive of the Indies โ the Real Alcรกzar is one of the most visited attractions in the world.
A bit of history
The need for an organization to control the voyages arose because of the problems arising from the success of Columbus’s first voyage to the Americas in 1492. It opened the floodgates of expeditions, and chaos ensued due to the uncontrollable conquests by the navigators, resulting in mutinies and rebellion in the New World.
Because there was no entity controlling the traffic to and from the Americas, the Crown had little knowledge of what was happening in the New World. Another important reason was that there was no accounting of the goods that arrived in Spain, and therefore no taxes were paid to the Crown.
To fix these problems, Queen Isabella I of Castile established the Casa de Contrataciรณn in 1503, with a mandate to regulate the trade in the Americas. Although it was a commercial organization, somewhat similar to the more notorious East India companies of the later yeas, it had broader powers that extended beyond trade. Besides approving the expeditions and training and licensing navigators, it collected taxes and acted as a court of law to settle trade disputes.
It was also a scientific organization responsible for creating maps of the trade routes and newly discovered territories and maintaining their secrecy. Many famous cartographers of the 16th century worked here. For example, Juan de la Cosa, who was working as a cartographer here, created his famous first world map, which included the New World. Note that he was also a navigator who accompanied Christopher Columbus in the first three voyages.
The Spanish Crown chose Seville as the first headquarters of Casa de Contrataciรณn because of its strategic location, which provided many advantages. After the discovery of the New World, Seville became the hub of international trade. It was an inland port on the banks of the Guadalquivir River, about 50 miles from the ocean. While the high navigability of this river made it easier to access the ocean, Sevilleโs distance from the ocean provided security from attacks by the sea, especially from pirates. Its location also made it easier to access inland areas for distributing goods from the New World.
The Casa de Contrataciรณn remained in this building until 1598 and was moved to the current location of the Archive of the Indies (Used to be known as Lonja de Mercaderes). After Seville lost its importance, primarily because the Guadalquivir River became less navigable due to silting, the Casa de Contrataciรณn was transferred in 1717 to the port city of Cรกdiz. It remained there until King Charles IV abolished in 1790.
As a side note, Spain’s rival Portugal also had its own house of trade known as the Casa da รndia (House of รndia), established in 1500 in Lisbon by King Manuel I of Portugal. It funded the voyages of Vasco da Gama, who discovered the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope.
Old building with a new appearance
The original building that housed Casa de Contrataciรณn was built over existing Moorish structures. In the next two centuries after its inceptuin, the building endured many calamities, such as fires and earthquakes, and fell into disrepair. It was reconstructed in 1805 with a new facade and remodeled in 1973 with its current appearance.
The Casa de Contrataciรณn occupied three halls, two of which have been well-preserved. These are the Admiral’s Hall and the Hall of Audiences.
Admiralโs Hall
Although this hall was part of Casa de Contrataciรณn, it got its name for a different reason. It was the headquarters of the Tribunal del Almirantazgo de Castilla (Admiralty of Court of Castile).
When this hall was part of the Casa de Contrataciรณn headquarters, many famous (and infamous) explorers from Spain and the neighboring countries visited this hall for a variety of reasons. Here are some examples:
Christopher Columbus met Queen Isabella met after his second voyage to the Americas in the hope of getting funding for his future expeditions.
Ferdinand Magellan, an explorer from the rival Portugal who changed his allegiance to Spain, visited this hall to convince the head of Casa de Contrataciรณn to approve his expedition to the Moluccas.
Amerigo Vespucci, an explorer from Italy responsible for naming America, worked here as the chief pilot to train the navigators and was also involved in licensing them before they went on voyages to the New World.
Admiral’s Room
The above image shows part of the Admiralโs Hall, which is still in active use; Occasionally, it hosts small conferences. As you can see, it has a stage and seating arrangement for the attendees. Decorating its walls are exquisite paintings, most of which are portraits of famous figures.
Here is a brief description of the paintings that are visible in the image:
Center โ The inauguration of the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929 by Alfonso Grosso
Left โ Queen Marรญa Cristina de Borbรณn-Dos Sicilias painted by Carlos Blanco in 19th century
Right โ Antonio de Orleans โ Duke of Montpensier by painted Franz Xaver Winterhalter in the 19th century.
A large oil painting on canvas and beautiful portraits of kings, queens, and nobility covers the other part of the hall. Listed below are these paintings.
Portraits of famous figures
Portraits on display at the Admiral’s Hall
The portrait in the left-most image shows King Ferdinand VII of Spain painted by Carlos Blanco in the 19th century. King Ferdinand VII was the king of Spain twice. His first reign was in 1808, which lasted a few months, and the second in 1813, which lasted until he died in 1833.
The middle image depicts King Louis Philippe I of France painted by Franz Xaver Winterhalter sometime in the 19th century. Louis Philippe I (1773 โ 1850) was the last king of France. He reigned from 1830 to 1848. In 1809, he married Princess Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily, daughter of King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Maria Carolina of Austria, and also the niece of Marie Antoinette. The right-most image is her portrait painted by Franz Xaver Winterhalter in 1842. She is known as Queen Maria Amelia de Borbรณn-Dos Sicilias.
Las postrimerรญas de Fernando III el Santo (Last Moments of Ferdinand III the Saint)
This masterpiece is an oil painting on canvas (size 400 cm x 750 cm). Painted by Virgilio Mattoni, it depicts the last moments of Ferdinand III, the king of Castile, who captured Seville in 1248 from the Almohads. He died in Seville on May 30, 1252, and was later canonized in the 17th century.
Last Moments of Fernando III the Saint, a masterpiece by Virgilio Mattoni
Virgilio Mattoni, a native son of Seville, painted this work for the National Exhibition of 1887 to show his special connection to the city of Seville. This acclaimed work secured the second position in the exhibition.
The inspiration for the painting came from a passage described in the Chronicle of Spain, a compilation of historical accounts commissioned by Alfonso X the Wise, the son and successor to King Ferdinand III.
The mood of the scene in the painting is somber. Dressed in a white gown, King Ferdinand III has his head lowered and is falling on his knees as two monks are holding his arms up to form a cross. As he is about to die, the Archbishop standing in front of him is holding up the Eucharist with his hands as kings courtiers are anxiously watching the spectacle. Also seen is his queen, Joan of Dammartin, who collapsed on a cushion.
Hall of Audiences
It is much more ornate than the Admiral’s Hall. As you can see from the image below, the ceiling is covered with Mudรฉjar-style decoration. This hall used to serve as a chapel.
Hall of Audiences
On display in this hall is the altarpiece installed to make this hall a chapel so that the visitors, especially the navigators who were about to embark on a voyage, could attend a religious service or pray.
Virgin of the Navigators
In the central panel of the altarpiece is La Virgen de los Navegantes (Virgin of the Navigators), a masterpiece painted by the Spanish painter Alejo Fernรกndez sometime between 1531 and 1536. As you can see, the Virgin Mary is up in the clouds looking down at the ships floating in the sea. Her mantle covers many famous seafarers, including Christopher Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci, and indigenous people of the Americas. Flanking the central painting are the portraits of St. Sebastian, St. James the Great, St. Elmo, and St. John the Evangelist.
Virgin of the Navigators – A painting on the central panel of the altarpiece
Replica of La Santa Maria
On display to the left side of the altarpiece is a model of La Santa Maria, one of the three ships that sailed from Seville as part of Christopher Columbus’s first voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492.
Model of La Santa Maria
La Santa Maria was the flagship for the expedition and the largest of the three, the other two being La Niรฑa and La Pinta. It had a crew of 40 sailors when they set sail from Seville. After reaching the Americas, it hit a reef and was shipwrecked somewhere near Haiti on the Christmas day of 1492. Because the ship suffered considerable damage, Columbus ordered his crew salvaged its timber then abandoned it. Its remains has not been discovered yet. Columbus and his crew returned to Spain on La Niรฑa.
There is no record of the exact measurements and capacity of La Santa Maria. Its size was estimated based on the anecdotal evidence provided by Columbus’s crew. Based on this estimate, the Santa Maria was about 58 ft long and had three masts. The replica of Santa Maria shown in the image was built at the Museo Maritimo de Barcelona, Spain, under the supervision of the museum director.
The wall behind the model carries a banner with the insignia of the crown of Castile y Leรณn and similar banners cover the rest of the wall.
The palace of Pedro I is considered a masterpiece of Mudรฉjar art and architecture and is a testament to Spainโs multicultural roots. It owes its name to King Don Pedro (1350 – 1369), an eccentric ruler of Castile and Leon known for his cruelty and also known for his open-mindedness toward different cultures. Christian, Jewish, and Islamic cultures flourished, and a harmonious relationship existed between these cultures during his reign.
King Don Pedro was a great admirer of Moorish culture and architecture. He built this magnificent palace using Mudรฉjar artisans from Seville, Toledo, and the Moorish kingdom of Granada. Mudรฉjar art and architecture, which emerged in Andalusia, Spain, in the 12th century, is a fusion of Islamic and Christian styles, best characterized by horseshoe arches, afarje ceilings decorated with interlaced star-like polygons, decorative motifs on plaster with linear and curvilinear patterns, glazed ceramic tiles with geometrical patterns, beehive ceilings, and stalactites.
The Pedro I Palace is part of Real Alcรกzar of Seville, a large complex consisting of palaces, administrative buildings, and gardens built/rebuilt by different cultures from the middle ages to the modern era. A part of this palace is still being used as the royal residence. Designated in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site โ along with the Seville Cathedral and the General Archive of the Indies โ the Real Alcรกzar is one of the most visited attractions in the world.
The main entrance to the Real Alcรกzar is the Puerta del Leรณn, a gate built during the Almohad times, located on the Plaza del Triunfo and is close to the eastern end of the Seville Cathedral.
The image below shows the front facade of Puerta del Leรณn. Embedded into its wall above the door is a beautiful emblem of a lion carrying the cross, which is responsible for the name Puerta del Leรณn, which means Lionโs Gate in Spanish. Although the wall of this gate is from Almohad times, the emblem is recent, made in 1892 of Triana Ceramic tiles in a local factory named Mensaque.
The Puerta del Leรณn is not the only entrance to the Real Alcรกzar; There is another located at the intersection of Calle Menendez Pelayo and Calle San Fernando, used mostly for special occasions.
Puerta del Leรณn – Main entrance to the Real Alcรกzar Patio del Leรณn (Courtyard of the Lion)
The Peurta del Leรณn opens into the Patio del Leรณn, a small courtyard with a path in the middle flanked by several rectangle-shaped hedges of neatly-trimmed myrtle bushes, which enclose tall trees, including cypress, and a variety of plants. The other end of the patio is the ancient Moorish wall. See the image below.
The view of the Patio del Leรณn shown in the image is from the Moorish wall. At the far end is the rear side of the Peurta del Leรณn.
Ancient Moorish wall
Visitors walk through ancient Moorish wall before entering into the Real Alcรกzar complex. The three arched doors were carved out of the defensive fortification to allow entry to the newly built Pedro I Palace. As you can see, there is a difference in construction methods. The brick-based archways were from the King Pedro era, whereas the stone-based rest of the wall was from the Almohad era.
Ancient Moorish wall
Majestic exterior
Pedro I Palace and Patio de la Monterรญa (Courtyard of Hunting)
The building at the far end of the image is King Pedro I Palace, and the courtyard in front of it is known as Patio de la Monterรญa (Courtyard of Hunting), i.e., the courtyard with the white crisscrossed lines. To the right of King Pedro I Palace is Casa de Contrataciรณn (House of Trade). This view is captured from the middle arched door of the ancient Moorish wall, which separates the Patio de la Monterรญa and Patio del Leรณn (Courtyard of the Lion).
Entrance to the Pedro I Palace
The Pedro I Palace has a beautifully-designed Mudรฉjar-style facade and entrance. Mathematics played a vital role in creating beautiful art in the decoration of the facade. As you can see, the design is symmetrical about the vertical axis. The beam above the door has several voussoirs (wedge-shaped blocks) that are placed at regular intervals and slanted outwards. Flanking the door are the blind stilted arches with the space above them decorated with beautiful sebka decorative motifs.
This view was captured from the Patio de la Monterรญa. You can see visitors entering into a narrow hall known as the vestibule, which has passageways at the ends leading to the other rooms.
Glamorous interior
Decorated by the Mudรฉjar artisans from Seville, Toledo and Granada, the interior is filled stunningly beautiful artwork containing mesmerizing geometrical patterns on the walls, ceilings and arches.
Layout of the Palace
Layout of the Pedro I Palace
The diagram shows the ground plan of the Pedro I Palace Note: This diagram is neither accurate nor drawn to scale. The purpose of this diagram is to show different halls and rooms and their locations within the palace.
Here is the list of the halls and rooms:
1. Vestibulo (Vestibule) 2. Alcoba Real (Royal Bedroom) 3. Patio de las Doncellas (Courtyard of the Maidens) โ Corridor 4. Patio de las Doncellas โ Sunken Garden 5. Salรณn de Embajadores (Ambassadorsโ Room) 6. Salรณn de los Sevillanos (Hall of the Sevillians) 7. Salรณn de los Toledanos (Hall of the Toledans) 8. Patio de las Muรฑecas (Patio of the Dolls) 9. Sala de los Infantes (Infants Room) 10. Sala de los Pasos Perdidos โ Hall of the Lost Steps 11. Salรณn de los Reyes Catรณlicos (Hall of the Catholic Monarchs) 12. Cuarto del Prรญncipe (Princeโs Room) 13. Salรณn del Techo de Felipe II (Philip II Ceiling Room) 14. Salรณn del Techo de Carlos V (Charles V Ceiling Room)
King Don Pedro lived in this palace and conducted his official here. As the name suggests, his bedroom is Alcoba Real (2). The halls he used for the official business are centered around Patio de las Doncellas (4). The queen and children used Patio de las Muรฑecas (8). The Salรณn de Embajadores (5) was the throne room, and this was where King Don Pedro received emissaries and prominent people of his time.
Vestibulo (Vestibule)
The Vestibule (Section 1 in the layout) is the hall where visitors enter the Pedro I Palace. It is a narrow hall with passageways at the ends leading to the other rooms. The left passageway leads to the Patio de las Doncellas, which is the official section of the palace. The right passageway leads to the Patio de las Muรฑecas, which is the private section of the palace.
Mudรฉjar art on the ceiling of the entrance hall
The beautiful piece of work in wood shown in the image is on the ceiling of the vestibule. It is classic Mudรฉjar art. As you can see, enclosed within the central rectangle of the wooden panel is exquisitely decorated artwork containing gold inlaid shapes (medallions and polygons), with beautiful geometrical patterns interlaced around them.
Alcoba Real (Royal Bedroom)
Situated next to the vestibule, the Alcoba Real was King Pedro’s bedroom, which has two rooms, outer and inner. Check section 2 in the layout. As you can see, the inner room has only one door, which opens into the outer room.
All the three images shown above portray the beauty of Mudรฉjar art. The floor and lower part of walls is ornate with tile work covered with eye-catching geometrical patterns. It appears as though these patterns follow some mathematical equations. The arched door of the outer room opens into Patio de las Doncellas, and the wall surrounding it is embellished with arabesques and Islamic calligraphy. Covering the ceiling is a beautiful piece of artwork in wood. As you can see, this exquisitely decorated artwork contains gold inlaid shapes (medallions and polygons), with beautiful geometrical patterns interlaced around them.
Patio de las Doncellas (Courtyard of the Maidens)
The Patio de las Doncellas (Courtyard of the Maidens) is a rectangular courtyard with ornate corridors on all four sides. In the middle of the courtyard is a pool flanked by sunken garden with trees that include the famous orange trees of Seville.
Legend has it that the sultan of Cordoba demanded 100 virgins every year as a tribute from the Christian kings of the Iberian Peninsula. This courtyard owns its name to the maidens in the legend.
Patio de las Doncellas – Corridor
The courtyard was built by King Don Pedro and the upper gallery was a later addition built by Charles V.
This courtyard resembles many open courtyards in the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada. For example, Court of the Myrtles in the Nasrid Palaces, Patio de la Acequia (Court of the Irrigation Canal) in the Generalife. This is because King Pedro I loved Moorish architecture and decoration and had a cordial relationship with the Nasrids of Granada, who sent master craftsmen to help build and decorate the palace.
As you can see, the alfarje ( i.e., wooden panel on the ceiling) is exquisitely decorated with artwork containing gold inlaid shapes (medallions and polygons), with beautiful geometrical patterns interlaced around them. This beautiful piece of work is another excellent example of Mudรฉjar art. Check the Mudรฉjar art on the ceiling of the entrance hall.
Salรณn de Embajadores (Ambassadors’ Hall)
The Salรณn de Embajadores (Room 5 in the layout) was King Don Pedroโs throne room, and this was where he received emissaries and prominent people of his time. It is the most elaborately decorated room in the Pedro I Palace. Adding to its beauty is the perfect symmetry with which it was built and decorated. The square-shaped room is symmetrical about both the principal axis.
The exquisitely decorated ceiling is an excellent example of geometrical artwork using Mudรฉjar-style design. As you can see from the image, the view is dazzling and delightful to watch. Enclosing the perfectly circular shape is an octagram, a star-shaped polygon with eight angles, also a hexadecagon (a polygon with 16 sides).
The recessed circular panel is filled with small colorful polygons arranged in a geometrical pattern that radiates outwards from the star-like shape in the center. It gives an impression of the sky with a multitude of twinkling stars. The designers intended to make the people experience cosmic space in this room. It is believed that the artwork on the ceiling represents the cosmos, and the square room below represents the earth.
Each side of the square room looks similar, with a balcony made of wrought iron projecting out just below the ceiling. Below each balcony is a richly decorated arched door opening into another room. These balconies were added later, sometime in the 19th century.
Richly decorated rooms dedicated to the artisans
The Salรณn de Embajadores opens into Salรณn de los Sevillanos (Hall of the Sevillians) and Salรณn de los Toledanos (Hall of the Toledans) on two of its sides. See the sections 6 and 7 of the layout. The Salรณn de los Sevillanos is dedicated the artisans from Seville who decorated this hall. Likewise, Salรณn de los Toledanos owes its name to the artisans from Toledo.
As you can see from the images, the triple horse shoe arches supported by marble pillars separate the adjacent halls from the Salรณn de Embajadores.
Patio de las Muรฑecas (Patio of the Dolls)
Patio de las Muรฑecas (Room 8 in the layout) got its name because of the dolls carved into the arches. The image on the left has dolls carved into the arch near its bottom. It is believed that there are nine dolls carved into arches of the Patio de las Muรฑecas.
During Don Pedro’s time, the queen and the children used this room. The space above the arch is ornate with beautiful sebka decorative motifs. The upper two floors are the newer and built in the nineteenth century.
Notes
Note 1: Mudรฉjars were highly skilled craftsmen of Moorish origin who remained in the Christian areas and worked as masons, carpenters, potters, glass-makers, etc. Their skills were highly sought after to build palaces and luxury homes for the nobility in the Christian and Islamic areas.
Note 2: Arabesque is a repetitive pattern of foliage or geometrical designs found in decorations of Islamic architecture.
Note 3: Alfarje is a wooden painted ceiling decorated with decoration based interlacing star-shaped polygons.
Whether you love it or hate it, this unique and futuristic-looking structure, popularly known as Las Setas of Seville, stands in stark contrast to the rest of Seville that prides itself on world-famous historical monuments. Because it resembles mushrooms, it got its name Las Setas, which means ‘The Mushrooms’ in Spanish. However, it is officially known as Metropol Parasol because of its six umbrella-like structures, known as parasols.
The six parasols of Las Setas are connected and arranged into four levels. The underground level (Level 0) houses a museum known as Antiquarium. Designed by Felipe Palomino Gonzรกlez – a renowned Sevillian architect who also participated in the Las Setas design – the Antiquarium is home to archaeological artifacts found in this area. The street-level (Level 1) houses a supermarket, Mercado de la Encarnaciรณn. The upper levels (Levels 2 and 3) have walkways and miradors (viewing points) for visitors to experience the 360-view of the city. There is a tapas restaurant in the central parasol.The area below the parasols is spacious and used for holding events
Designed by the German architect Jรผrgen Mayer and completed in April 2011, Las Setas is the largest wooden structure in the world built by employing 3,500 pieces of Finnish pine (Kerto) joined by 3000 knots using 16 million screws and nails. This 26 meters high structure covers 3500 (150 x 70) cubic meters and weighs 1,300,000 kgs.
Although the Las Setas looks like an unconventional structure, the inspiration for Jรผrgen Mayer’s design came from a conventional source, i.e., Seville Cathedral. Beautifully designed vaulted ceilings connecting its towering columns seem to have influenced his design.
A bit of history
The site occupied by Las Setas is known as the Plaza de La Encarnaciรณn, which used to be the city center of old Seville, with a long history dating back to Roman times. It is apparent from the archeological artifacts found in this area that the Romans built their houses and industries in this area. The Almohads, a Moorish dynasty from North Africa who took over the city in 1248, also built houses that were part of their palaces.
The Plaza de La Encarnaciรณn got its name from the convent of the Incarnation of the Augustinian Religions that existed in this site for more than 200 years. It was built in 1591 and destroyed in 1810 by Napoleon’s army.
The ancient history of the Plaza de La Encarnaciรณn lay hidden for a long time until 2003 when the city council of Seville decided to build a plaza with an underground parking garage. The excavation for this garage led to the discovery of ancient ruins, which resulted in the city council abandoning the plan to construct the plaza.
Soon after, the city council announced an international competition to redesign the Plaza de La Encarnaciรณn in such as way that the ruins underneath are preserved. The German architect Jรผrgen Mayer won the competition, and the rest is history. The construction based on his design began in 2005, and as mentioned before, ended in April 2011.
Stunning views at the street level
Las Setas is an imposing structure and awesome sight to watch. At night, it is lit by colorful lights that make it appear like an alien ship. The street level (Level 1) houses a supermarket, Mercado de la Encarnaciรณn. There is a tapas restaurant in the central parasol. The area below the parasols is spacious and used for holding events.
A street level view at day timeSpace under the parasolsA street level view at night A street level view at night
Experience the 360-degree view of Seville at the upper levels
Curved walkways on the upper level terraceUpper level with La Giralda at the far end
The upper levels (Levels 2 and 3) have walkways and miradors (viewing points) for visitors to experience the 360-view of the city. Visitors can climb and walk the paths on the upper levels and get a 360-degree view of Seville. Many prominent landmarks of Seville, including La Giralda, Seville Cathedral, Plaza de Espana, are visible from different vantage points. There are curved walkways that enable visitors to move from the elevator exit (21 meters) to the highest viewing point (28.5 meters).
Panoramic Views
The top left image shows the Iglesia de la Anunciaciรณn (Church of the Annunciation) at the near end. This church is on Calle Laraรฑa, located next to the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Seville.
The tall building on the top right image is the Seville Tower, an office building with 40 floors that includes a shopping complex and a five star hotel. Designed by the Argentine architect Cรฉsar Pelli – who also designed many world’s tallest skyscrapers, including Petronas Tower in Kuala Lumpur – this elliptical-shaped building is the tallest in Andalusia.
The two towers on the left side of the bottom left image belong to the Plaza de Espaรฑa, a grand semi-circular building with a canal in front. Built at the two ends of this building are the two imposing towers that are seen in this image. The yellowish structure near the center of the image is the Iglesia de Santa Cruz, a Catholic church located on Mateos Gago Street in Barrio Santa Cruz. Built in the 18th century, the Iglesia de Santa Cruz is the headquarters of the Brotherhood of Santa Cruz.
The tower you see in the bottom right image is an iconic landmark of Seville, La Giralda, the bell fry of the Seville Cathedral, which is behind La Giralda.
Iglesia de la AnunciacionSeville TowerPlaza de Espaรฑa and Iglesia de Santa Cruz Seville Cathedral and La Giralda
Undoubtedly, the Durga Temple at Aihole is an architectural masterpiece and a testament to the ingenuity and engineering skills of the Badami Chalukyas. With its unusual shape and structure, it stands out from the rest of the temples in this area. It could even be mistaken for a Greek or Roman monument because of its curved shape and massive columns that have beautifully-carved corbels at their capitals. It is generally believed that the inspiration for the architecture of the Parliament House in New Delhi came from this temple.
Although it is called Durga Temple, Goddess Durga is not its principal deity. It got its name for an unusual reason. In Kannada, durga means fort. Because the Durga Temple used to be part of a fort complex, people started calling it a temple at the durga, and the name eventually stuck.
Located in Aihole, about 22 miles from Badami and 6 miles from Pattadakal, the Durga Temple was built by the Badami Chalukyas sometime in the 7th or 8th century, although some experts dispute the dating. It is contemporaneous with the rock-cut caves of Badami, and they have a lot in common, especially the carvings. This page describes some of the similarities.
Harmonious blend of architecture styles
Rear view of the Durga Temple
Although architecturally classified as the Gajaprastha style – a subclass under the Dravida style – it is a fusion of many architectural styles, including the northern nagara and southern mantapa. In Kannada, Gajaprastha refers to the back-side of an elephant. The round rear-side of this temple does indeed resemble that. If a temple is curved at the back, then its architecture style is identified as Gajaprastha. However, such temples are rare in Southern India.
As you can see from the image, above the garbhagriha is the shikhara (a.k.a. vimana), a tower-like structure that appears to be of northern nagara-style design. Notice the round ridged object fallen on the ground next to the temple. Known as amalaka, it used to be part of the shikhara placed just below the kalasa (pinnacle).
East side view and entrance to the Durga Temple
Just like the majority of Hindu temples, this temple faces east, but with an unusual entrance. Instead of a single flight of steps facing front, it has two staircases facing sideways (one facing south and the other north) that join at the top. Check the mukhamantapa image.
As you can see from the image, the temple is on an elevated platform with massive stone columns built at the periphery to support the roof.
Mukhamantapa
South side view of the Durga Temple
The two side-staircases join at the center and lead to the mukhamantapa (porch), which is a pillared hall with four pillars inside and several pillars at the periphery. The mukhamantapa design conforms to the Dravida-style architecture.
Richly decorated internal pillars are carved with exquisite stone artwork and sculptural reliefs on all four sides. All the pillars have finely-carved sculptures depicting mostly romantic couples, some of which can be described as mildly erotic, and are known as the mithuna shilpa.
The floor space covered by the four internal pillars is elevated and is accessed through a flight of steps on the east end. Check the front view of the temple. The area covered by the internal pillars forms a small mantapa (hall) within the mukhamantapa. At the other end of this internal mantapa is the Dvฤrabandha, i.e., the entrance to the sabhamantapa and garbhagriha.
As you can see from the image, massive stone beams connect the internal pillars resulting in two deeply recessed square-shaped blocks on the ceiling. Carved into these blocks are the two beautiful bas-reliefs, Matsya Chakra and Coiled Nagaraja. Attached to the beam separating these blocks are the slightly-curved buttresses. The bottom part of these buttresses are the faces of Makara, a dragon-like mythical creature, projecting out of the capitals of the pillars. The roof above the recessed blocks is at a higher level than the rest of the mukhamantapa.
Matsya Chakra – A beautiful relief representing a cosmic pond
Matsya Chakra (Fish Wheel)
Known as the Matsya Chakra (Fish Wheel), this intricately-carved relief covers a recessed block of the ceiling near the dvฤrabandha. As you can see, it is a wheel consisting of a hub at the center and 16 spokes of fish enclosed by a rim carved with beautiful patterns of flowers and leaves. The hub of the wheel is a medallion with a lotus flower pattern. The Matsya Chakra relief likely represents the cosmic pond.
This relief was likely inspired by the Matsya Chakra relief found on the mukhamantapa ceiling of Cave -3, the third of the four rock-cut caves of Badami.
Coiled Nagaraja – An exquisitely-carved relief depicting king of serpents.
Coiled Nagaraja
Carved into the other recessed block on the ceiling is another beautiful relief that depicts Nagaraja, the mythical king of serpents. As you can see, Nagaraja has multiple serpent heads, and at the center, there is a human head with the torso that extends into a spiraling serpent body forming a coil.
In this highly-detailed relief, Nagaraja is wearing a beautiful mukuta (headgear) and a variety of jewelry, including earrings, necklaces, bangles, and armbands. He is also wearing the yajnopavita, a looped thread sacred to Hindus worn across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist. He is holding a garland with his right hand and a bowl with his left hand.
This relief was likely inspired by the Coiled Nagaraja carving found on the ceiling of Cave -1, the first of the four rock-cut caves of Badami.
Pillars embellished with erotic art
As you can see, the pillar shown in the left image is ornate with a variety of bas-reliefs. The topmost carving is a mithuna shilpa, i.e., an erotic art form depicting a romantic couple. Below that is a carving depicting a series of male musicians playing different instruments. The frieze below that contains Kirthimuka, a decoration commonly seen in Indian and Southeast Asian temples.
Just above the bottom-most frieze is a Vidyadhara couple carved inside a circular frame. The bottom-most frieze contains a series of male figures, likely wrestlers.
Dvฤrabandha – An elaborate entrance to the sabhamantapa
Entrance to the sabhamantapa
The facade of the entrance to the sabhamantapa (congregation hall) is ornate with an ensemble of decorations. At the center is the door that opens int to the main hall and leads to the garbhagriha (inner sanctum). Carved into the lintel is a beautiful relief depicting an imposing figure of Garuda, an eagle-like bird used by Vishnu as his vehicle, clasping nฤgas (serpents) who have human heads. Surrounding the door frame are the finely-carved pilasters and vertical stone beams. Carved into the beams on the outer edge is a series of beautiful female figures, likely representing apsaras.
The stone pediment above the lintel consists of gods and demigods in the niches separated by geometrical patterns.
Garuda subduing the nagas
Garuda with nagas
This intricately carved relief is on the lintel of the dvฤrabandha depicts Vishnuโs vehicle Garuda, a mythical eagle-like bird with a human-like body with wings, holding nฤgas, who have human heads and serpent bodies. As you can see, there are three nฤgas on each side with their tails tightly held by Garudaโs hands. Notice the middle nฤga on the left. He has seven serpent heads, indicating that he is the Nagaraja, the king of serpents.
Sabhamantapa and Garbhagriha
The door at the far end of the left image opens into the garbhagriha (inner sanctum) of the Durga Temple. The right image shows the interior of the garbhagriha. As you can see from this image, there is just a pedestal on which the principal idol of the temple once stood. Because this idol is missing, nobody is sure to whom this temple was dedicated. Historians believe that it was likely a Surya or Vishnu temple.
There are eight pillars, four on each side, in the main hall that is in front of the garbhagriha, virtually dividing the hall into a grid of three longitudinal aisles and five transverse sections.
In a typical Dravida-style architecture, the mantapa in front of the garbhagriha has two halls: antarala (ante-chamber) and sabhamantapa (congregation hall). In this temple, the first transverse section in front of the garbhagriha is narrower than the other four. So, it can be considered as the antarala. The rest of the main hall is the sabhamantapa.
An oblong-shaped wall, one side of which is semi-circular, surrounds the garbhagriha and the main hall. The semi-circular part appears like an apsidal structure, and this design resembles a Christian Church (sans transepts). Experts believe that it was influenced by the architecture of Buddhist Chaitra halls.
The surrounding wall was built with large perfectly-fitting stones, some of which were cut with precise curvature. It is amazing how the builders achieved this high level of precision without the aid of sophisticated machinery.
Corridor used as the Pradakshina Patha
The Durga Temple has a covered Pradakshina Patha (clockwise circumambulation path). As you can see from the images, the corridor used for performing the circumambulation has a slightly slanted roof supported by the stone pillars at the periphery. The other side of this corridor is a wall that surrounds the garbhagriha and the mantapa (covered hall) in front of it. The upper half of this wall alternate between dฤvakลshtas (niches) and jฤlandharas (perforated windows). Occupying the dฤvakลshtas are beautifully carved sculptures, each depicting a god or goddess. The jฤlandharas provide light and ventilation into the interior.
Because the Durga Temple is apsidal, the corridor is bent at the far end, which in other words means its rear side covering the garbhagriha is round.
Dฤvakลshtas – Niches with finely-carved sculptures
There are six dฤvakลshtas built into the inner wall of the corridor. The jฤlandharas occupy the space between the dฤvakลshtas.
As you can see, each sculpture is installed between kudyastambhas (pilasters).
Jฤlandharas – Beautifully designed perforated windows
The purpose of the jฤlandharas is to provide ventilation and light into the interior. They also improve the aesthetics when the perforations are cut into the stone to create beautiful patterns.
In the Durga Temple, they are carved with perforations forming a variety of patterns, some of which depict sacred religious symbols and the others aesthetically pleasing patterns. Here is a list of the jฤlandharas installed in the clock-wise direction:
Jฤlandhara carved with the swastika and lotus flower patternsJฤlandhara with rhombus patternsDharmachakra carved in a jฤlandharaJฤlandharas in the south side
The jฤlandhara is a unique element of the Dravida-style architecture and is a common feature in many Chalukya and Hoysala temples.
Prambanan is a massive Hindu temple complex (also known as Rara Jonggrang complex) located 11 miles northeast of Yogyakarta in Indonesia. Built around 900 CE, this complex contains multiple temples dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses. Carved into the walls of these temples are the beautiful bas-reliefs that depict scenes narrated in the Indian epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the Puranas. Most of the bas-reliefs are very detailed, and because of that, the stories they represent are easily identifiable.
Ramayana bas-reliefs
The bas-reliefs depicting stories from Ramayana are carved into the inner walls of the balustrade of the corridor surrounding the inner sanctum of the Shiva and Brahma Temples. Not all bas-reliefs are in the right order, and in some cases, wrong bas-reliefs are in place, a result of improper restoration. Here are some of them that are easily identifiable.
Rama’s exile
Rama, Sita and Lakshmana leaving Ayodhya for exile
Rama was one of the four sons of Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya. Being the eldest son, Rama was the legitimate heir to the throne of Ayodhya. Kaikeye, one of his three wives, wanted her son Bharata to be the future king of Ayodhya.
When Dasharatha became ready to hand-over his reign to Rama, Kaikeye invokes two varas (boons) that Dasharatha had given to her when she saved his life during a battle. She asks Dasharatha to make Bharata the crown prince and banish Rama to the forest for 14 years. King Dasharatha reluctantly agrees because he could not go back on his promises. Rama respects his fatherโs wishes and leaves Ayodhya for the forest along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana.
The bas-relief shown in the image is a narrative depiction of Rama, his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana leaving Ayodhya for the exile in the forest. Seated in front of the chariot are Rama and his wife Sita, and in the back is his brother Lakshmana. The people in the back chariot are the courtiers from King Dasharathaโs court bidding farewell to their popular princes.
King Dasharatha’s funeral
Rama’s father King Dasaratha’s funeral
Once Rama, Sita and Lakshmana left for exile, King Dasharatha became grief-stricken and died soon after. The bas-relief depicts the funeral ceremony of Dasharatha.
Bharata’s inauguration as the King of Ayodhya
Dancing at the inauguration of Bharata
Bharata is a half-brother of Rama, the eldest son of Dasharatha and the legal heir to the throne. As mentioned earlier, Bharata’s mother Kaikeyi convinces Dasharatha to make Bharatha the king of Ayodhya and banish Rama to the forest for fourteen years.
The image depicts dancing at the inauguration of Bharata as the king of Ayodhya.
Rama’s time in exile
As mentioned earlier, Rama along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana went into exile in the forest for fourteen years. Some of the bas-reliefs depict events that happened during his exile.
Killing Viradha
Rama killing Viradha, a rakshasa in Dandakaranya
Rama spent 13 of the 14 years of exile in Dandakaranya, a forest that was home to many noble rishis (sages) as well as evil rakshasas (demons). Viradha was one of the rakshasas attacking the rishis and animals and destroying vegetation in Dandakaranya. No weapons could kill Viradha as he possessed a supernatural power from a vara (boon) he received from Brahma. Because of this vara, he was fearless. As Rama was wandering in Dandakaranya with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, Viradha arrogantly confronts Rama and tries to snatch Sita. Enraged by this act, Rama kills Viradha by burying him since weapons could not kill him. As he lay dying, he morphs into a gandharva, which was his original form, and thanks Rama for releasing him from the curse that made him a rakshasa.ย Note: Gandarvas are a type of demigods who are celestial musicians.
Kidnapping of Rama’s wife Sita
This famous episode in Ramayana happens in the 13th year of Rama’s exile. In this episode, Mareecha, a rakshasa (demon) and maternal uncle of Ravana, assumes the form of a golden deer to distract Rama in order to enable Ravana to kidnap Rama’s wife Sita (Shinta in Java).
Rama slaying Mareecha who assumed the form of a golden deer
The image shows Rama killing the golden deer with his arrow and the body of Mareecha springing out of the golden deer as it starts dying.
According to the story, before Mareecha dies, he imitates Rama’s voice and screams “Oh! Sita, Oh! Lakshmana.” Troubled by this voice, Sita pleads with Rama’s brother Laksmana to help Rama. Lakshmana reluctantly agrees, but before he leaves, he draws a line, famously known as the Lakshmana Rekha, around the hermitage and asks Sita not to cross it under any circumstances.
Ravana kidnapping Sita
Once Lakshmana leaves the hermitage, Ravana disguised as a sadhu (ascetic) comes there and chants “Bhavati Biksham Dehi” (Oh! mother, give me some alms). Seeing the sadhu, Sita goes inside to fetch alms. Ravana tries to follow her into the hermitage but was unable to cross the Lakshmana Rekha. Once Sita returns, he convinces Sita to come out of it to give Ravana the alms. As soon as she crosses the Lakshmana Rekha, Ravana kidnaps her.
Rama killing Kabandha
Kabandha is another rakshasa, Rama and Lakshmana killed during their exile. With the eyes and mouth in his belly, he is a rakshasa with an enormous appetite. The image below shows the bas-relief depicting Rama killing Kabandha.
Rama killing Kabandha
This episode happens after Ravan abducts Sita. According to the story, Kabandha finds Rama and Lakshmana wandering in the forest looking for Sita. He tries to catch them with the intention of eating them, but Rama and Lakshmana fight him off and were about to kill him by severing his hands. Realizing that they are not ordinary human beings, he asks for their identity. When he comes to know who they are, he pleads with them to release him from his curse by killing him.
Just like Viradha, Kabandha too was born a gandharva but cursed by Indra to become a carnivorous rakshasa. Once Rama and Lakshmana kill him, he regains his original gandharva body and advises Rama how to find Sita. He suggests Rama befriend Sugriva, a vanara (monkey) who is in power struggle with his brother Vali, and help him to become the King of Kishkindha.
Building Rama Setu (Bridge to Lanka)
Vanara Sene Building Rama Setu
After killing Kabandha, Rama continues his journey in search of Sita. As per Kadambha’s advice, he goes southwards to the Rishyamuka Mountain to meet Sugriva, who agrees to help him, provided Rama help him topple his elder brother Vali, the King of Kishkindha.
Rama and Sugriva devise a plan to defeat Vali. As per this plan, Sugriva invites Vali for a duel, and during the fight, Rama waiting on the sidelines kills Vali with an arrow. See the beautifully carved Vali-Sugriva Fight bas-relief on the Banteay Srei Temple that illustrates this fight.
After the death of Vali, Sugriva becomes the King of Kishkindha. Sugriva’s friend Hanuman goes to Lanka and finds the exact location of Sita.
Eventually, Sugriva builds a vanara sene (army of monkeys) to invade Lanka to get back Sita. Because Lanka is an island, Sugriva builds a bridge to Lanka to ferry the monkey troops. The image below shows the bas-relief depicting the vanara sene led by Sugriva building the bridge to Lanka (Rama Setu).
Other Ramayana bas-reliefs
The bas-reliefs shown in the images below are not easily identifiable.
Ramayana story bas-reliefBas-relief depicting a story from Ramayana
Bas-reliefs of Ramayana tales
Krishnayana bas-reliefs
Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, is the principal character in the Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana, and Bhagavata Githa. The Krishnayana reliefs depict stories of Krishna’s childhood and youth, mainly taken from the Bhagavata Purana and are carved in the Vishnu Temple.
Krishna and his stepbrother Balarama lived with his foster parents which is because Krishna’s parents, Vasudeva and Devaki, were jailed by Kamsa, his maternal uncle and the King of Mathura. Having killed Krishna’s six elder siblings, Kamsa was intent on killing Krishna because of a prophecy that foretold the death of Kamsa at the hands of Devaki’s eighth child, Kamsa feared Krishna would kill him.
Krishnayana story
Krishna’s foster parents, Nanda and Yashoda, lived a simple life in a place named Gokula. Nanda was the head of cowherds, so both Krishna and Balarama spent their childhood herding cows.
The image shows the bas-relief depicting the life of Krishna during his childhood.
Krishna and Balarama played together and often go to a wooded place named Vrindavana to play with their friends.
Krishna and Balarama killing demons
The image below shows a section of the Krishnayana bas-reliefs with two different stories.
Exploits of Krishna and Balarama
The left section depicts Krishna taming Kaliya, a vicious serpent who lived in the Yamuna River and roamed on its banks. According to the legend, Kaliya was poisoning the Yamuna River and creating havoc among the people living in Vrindavana. One day, when Krishna was playing in Vrindavana, the ball falls into Yamuna River. As Krishna dives into the river to retrieve a ball, Kaliya swoops on Krishna and tries to bite him. Krishna overpowers Kaliya and is about to tear apart his jaws to kill him, Kaliya’s wives come begging to Krishna to spare his life. Krishna listens to their pleas and forgives Kaliya, but banishes him and his family to Ramanaka Dweepa, an island far away from Vrindavana.
The story in the right section is about Balarama killing Dhenukasura, an asura (demon) who assumed the form of a donkey. When Dhenukasura attacks Krishna and Balarama for eating fruits in the Talavana Forest, Balarama wheels Dhenukasura’s body around by holding his hind legs and then swings it on the top of trees to kill him.
Krishna killing Vyomasura
Krishna and Balarama killing demons
The bas-relief depicts Krishna killing Vyomasura, a demon who could fly like a bat. According to a legend, Vyomasura disguises as a cowherd with an intention to kidnap Krishna’s cowherd friends. When Krishna notices an unusual face among his friends, he confronts Vyomasura, who then shows his true self. As can be seen from the image, Krishna lifts Vyomasura up by grabbing his legs, smashes him to the ground and kills him.
Krishnayana Story
.As you can see from the image, there are two story panels (likely restored incorrectly because there is no continued carving between the two). The left panel depicts Balarama, Krishna’s stepbrother, carrying his signature weapon, a plow, and the right panel Krishna killing an unidentified rakshasa.
Other bas-reliefs
The Prambanan temples have other bas-reliefs that are not directly related to either Ramayana or Krishnayana. Some of them depict devatas and apsaras. There are also reliefs of Lokapala, which could be Indra or the likeness of King Lokapala.
Lokapala
Lokapala in Sanskrit literally means guardian of the world. Loka means world and pala means guardian. In Hinduism, there is also a notion of guardian of a cardinal direction. A Lokapala may also be the guardian of a direction.
The Shiva Temple has numerous bas-relief frames with Lokapala sculptures. The other temples also have similar bas-reliefs but not as beautiful and expressive.
The Lokapala statues are in the sitting position but with different hand gestures (i.e., mudras) and facial expressions representing moods. The thrones on which Lokapala sits are similar.
The Lokapala statues have similar types of jewelry carved almost in the same position on the body. These include the necklace, thread around the belly, and thread on the left shoulder going over the navel (similar to the yajnopavita, a sacred thread worn by Hindus). Some experts believe that the Lokapala statues portray King Balitung Maha Sambu himself.
Lokapala reliefs in the Shiva Temple
The images below show the Lokapala statues placed in different directions.
LokapalaLokapala with the Vara Mudra hand gestureKubera holding a pomegranate with his right handBas-relief of Lokapala with the Bhumisparsha Mudra (Hand Gesture) in the Shiva TempleBas relief of meditating Lokapala
Lokapala reliefs in the Vishnu Temple
The images below show Lokapala flanked by the apsaras.
Devata flanked by ApsarasBalarama
Rishis (Sages)
Saptarishis carved in the Shiva Temple
The bas-relief depicting different rishis are carved on the outer walls of the temples. The sculptural relief shown below is carved on three frames in the Shiva Temple depicts the seven great sages of ancient India known as saptarishis. Here are the names of these rishis from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: 1. Vishwamitra 2. Vasistha 3. Jamadagni 4. Kashyapa 5. Atri 6. Bharadwaja. 7. Gautama Maharishi. The other Puranic texts have a different set of names.
Astronomically, saptarishis represent seven stars of the constellation of Ursa Major, commonly known as the Big Dipper. The legend of seven great sages exists in many ancient cultures, including the Greek, Chinese, and Egyptian cultures.
The sage at the center is most-likely Vishwamitra. As you can see from the image, Vishwamitra and some of the sage are holding japamalas with their right hands. A trishula (trident) is behind Vishwamitra with a kamandala (water jug) hung on its prong. It appears they are engaged in a debate.
Here are the reliefs of the other rishis:
A Rishi (Sage) with the Vitฤraka Mudra GestureA rishi flanked by apsaras
Lion flanked by Kinnaras
Lion flanked by Kinnaras
Most visitors to Prambanan notice the beautiful and a detailed carving as shown in the image. There are similar carvings on the outer walls of many temples.
At the center of this carving is the statue of a lion in the niche, and on either side of the lion is a kinnara couple (male and female) standing under the Kalpavriksha (a.k.a Kalphataru), the divine tree that fulfills wishes. Kinnara female is known as kinnaree. The significance and meaning of this unusual but beautiful and detailed carving are not well understood.
Kinnara
In Southeast Asian Hindu mythology, a kinnara is half-human and half-bird, whereas, in Indian Hindu mythology, a kinnara is a half-human and half-horse. Kinnaras are celestial musicians and live as a couple.
According to Mahabharata, a kinnara couple is a husband and wife forever, and their love is everlasting. No third person or creature can ever share their love. Because of this reason, they can never become parents, therefore, cannot have offspring.
Kalpavriksha
According to Hindu mythology, Kalpavrisksha is a divine tree that fulfills the desires of people. It is a by-product of the Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk). See the Samudra Manthana bas-relief in the Angkor Wat Temple. Indra, who was in the middle of the Samudra Manthana, took this tree and planted in his garden.
Other lion carvings
In some of the lion carvings, the kinnaras are replaced by animals such as rabbits. See the images below.
Lion flanked by animals under KalpavrikshaLion flanked by animals under Kalpavriksha
The magnificent campanile of the Seville Cathedral
When you look at the Giralda, it is hard to imagine that it is a product of two entirely different cultures. The lower half is part of the minaret built in the 13th century by the Almohads – a Moorish dynasty originated from North Africa. The upper half is a Renaissance-style bell tower built in the 16th century by the Christians, who took controls of Seville after the Reconquista. Despite the differences in architectural styles and religious traditions, the bell tower appears to be a seamlessly integrated harmonious structure, and is reflective of the multi-cultural aspects of Spain.
Giralda means ‘one that turns’ in Spanish. The decorative bronze sculpture placed at the top, which rotates with the wind and acts as a weather vane, is responsible for the name. It depicts a young woman holding a cross, symbolizing the victory of Faith.
Islamic Section – Highly ornate Moorish minaret
Giralda exterior
The minaret part of the tower appears to use two types of construction: Ashlar stone in the base and brick exterior in the rest. Richly decorated arched windows and balconies adorn the brick exterior on all four sides of the tower. They allow light and air into the interior.
Mounted on top of the original minaret was a hemispherical dome, and placed above it was a stack of three bronze spheres of decreasing size, crowning it with a crescent moon. The dome and spheres remained in place until an earthquake destroyed them in 1365.
Each side of the tower measures 45 ft at the street level. The foundation below the street level is a bit wider and is about 20 ft deep. Most of the stones used on the foundation and the base came from the existing Roman structures, including a wall nearby. The minaret segment of the tower is about 165 ft high.
The interior of the minaret consists of chambers at the center and ramps around them built with enough space to allow people and horseback riders to climb the tower. There are a total of 35 ramp segments, starting at the entrance and ending near the Christian part of the Giralda. The image below shows a segment (i.e., number 23) with the original flooring. As you can see, the ramp is big enough for people to walk comfortably, and the path is lit by the light that passes through the window situated on the right side.
A segment of the ramp
Christian Section – Bell tower with Victory of Faith at the top
Giralda upper part
In the 16th century, Seville was flourishing, thanks to the trade with the New World conquered by the Conquistadors. With an enormous wealth in hand, the cathedral chapter entrusted the work of building a magnificent bell tower for the Seville Cathedral to Hernan Ruiz II in 1558. He was an ingenious architect who had already built other structures in the Seville cathedral. It took him ten years to complete the addition to the bell tower.
Overlaid on top of the original minaret are the four stories built with the Renaissance style architecture. The transition to the new addition is smooth, and onlookers hardly notice the difference. The size (includes width and height) of the stories decreases with height. The bottom two floors are square-shaped, and the top two are circular.
The first story sits perfectly on top of the minaret and appears as though it is a continuation of it. Built with bricks, stones, and ceramics, it serves as a bell-chamber housing 24 bells, eight on each side. The exterior is highly ornate with columns, round windows, and an arch in the middle of each side. The bells hang between the pillars. Mounted above the corners are the bronze flower vases with lilies.
Interior of the belfryGiralda Bells
The second story has two levels. In 1765, a Franciscan Friar named Josรฉ Cordero installed a beautiful bell in the upper level of this story, and it became the 25th bell of Giralda. The third story is circular, and the fourth looks like a jar and is named “La Tinaja” (The Jar).
El Giradillo
Sitting above the fourth floor is a dome that acts as a pedestal for a magnificent bronze sculpture of a young woman holding a cross, symbolizing the victory of Faith. This sculpture is known as El Giradillo because it rotates with the wind and acts like a weather vane.
The woman in the statue is holding the cross with the right hand and the foliage with the left. The semi-oval plate attached to the lower part of the cross helps to point El Giradillo in the direction of the wind. As mentioned before, this rotating behavior is responsible for Giralda’s name, which means ‘one that turns’ in Spanish.
El Giradillo is about 13 ft high and rests on a pedestal that is 10 ft high. It was cast in bronze by Bartolomรฉ Morel in 1568 using a model most likely built by Juan Bautista Vรกzquez el Viejo, who was also responsible for the reliefs on the Chapter house dome. The model for the cast was based on a painting by Luis de Vargas. A duplicate of El Giradillo is in front of the Puerta del Principe.
Panoramic views
If you take the Seville Cathedral tour, it culminates with the climbing of the Giralda, first walking on the ramps of the minaret and then taking the flight of steps to the belfry, the last stop. As you climb the minaret part, you can stop at the balconies to view the surroundings. Once you reach the belfry, you can go around all the four sides and get a 360 view of the historic city of Seville. One of the spectacular views you see is of the Seville Cathedral itself.
Patio de los Naranjos – Courtyard of the Orange Trees
The image shows an aerial view of the Patio de los Naranjos, a garden of orange trees, enclosed by the structures belonging to the Seville Cathedral complex, which are, the northern facade of the Seville Cathedral on the left, Iglesia del Sagrario in the middle, and a gallery on the right.
The small tower in the middle of the right side (i.e., north) gallery belongs to the Puerta del Perdรณn (Door of Forgiveness), a gate through which visitors enter the Patio de los Naranjos from the Calle Alemanes. The gallery on the east side (not visible) houses La Bibliotheca Colombina, a library that holds the private book collection of Fernando Colรณn, the second son of Christopher Columbus. Both Fernando Colรณn and Christopher Columbus were interred in the Seville Cathedral.
The Patio de los Naranjos used to be the courtyard of the Almohad mosque once stood in this space. The only thing that remains of the courtyard from that era is the fountain where the worshipers performed ritual ablutions, i.e., washing of feet and hands before entering the mosque.
The Patio de los Naranjos is now used by the visitors to gather and relax before and after the tour of the Seville Cathedral.
A panoramic view from the belfry of the Giralda
The image shows the eastern end of the Seville Cathedral. The dome with the roof lantern is above the Capilla Real. Below the cathedral is the La Plaza de la Virgen de Los Reyes, and behind it is the Real Alcรกzar and the adjoining gardens. The Guadalquivir River is in the far end of the image.
Kappe Chennigaraya is a smaller temple situated in the south side of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple complex in Karnataka, India. Commissioned by Shantala Devi, the pattada rani (principal queen consort) of King Vishnuvardana, the builder of the main Chennakeshava Temple, the construction of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple began at the same time as the main temple, i.e., in 1117 CE. She took great interest in this temple and even oversaw its construction.
There is an interesting legend regarding how Kappe, which means frog in Kannada, became a part of this temple’s name. It involves Jakanachari, the legendary architect and sculptor of the Hoysala era. Here is a summary of this legend.
Legend of Jakanachari
Jakanachari was a master sculptor and a genius. He hailed from a village called Kridapura (became Kaidala because of him) in the present-day Tumkur district in Karnataka. Because of marital discord, he left his wife Manjari, and moved to the capital of the Hoysala Empire and worked as a master sculptor for King Vishnuvardana.
Unbeknown to Jakanachari, his son Dakanachari, who was also a talented sculptor, came to Belur and started working for him. As Jakanachari was carving the statue of Chennakeshava for the Chennigaraya Temple, his son discovered a flaw, i.e., a frog was inside the belly of the sculpture. When confronted by his son about this flaw, Jakanachari felt humiliated and challenged him to prove it, and if he was proved right, he would cut off his right hand.
Dakanachari was proved right, and a frog jumped out when they drilled a hole in the sculpture. Jakanachari kept his word and cut off his right hand. He also came to know that Dakanachari was his son.
Legend has it that Vishnu restored his right-hand once he built a temple dedicated to Vishnu in his hometown, which became known as Kaidala. In Kannada, kai means hand. Both Jakanachari and Dakanachari collaborated to carve a new Chennakeshava idol, and it was consecrated by none other than the Pattada Rani Shantala Devi. However, Kappe remained a part of the name even after the defect-free idol was installed in the garbhagriha.
Architecture
While this temple is somewhat similar to the main Chennakeshava Temple architecture-wise, it differs in size and decoration. The Kappe Chennigaraya Temple is smaller and less ornate. It appears like a prototype of the main temple built for experimentation.
Another significant difference between them is the number of garbhagrihas (inner sanctums). Whereas the Chennakeshava Temple is an ekakuta temple (i.e., single garbhagriha temple), the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple is dwikuta, which means it has two garbhagrihas, one in the west and another in the south. Each garbhagriha has an entrance in front of it. The left image below shows the east facing entrance, which is in front of the west garbhagriha, and the right image shows the north facing entrance, which is in front of the south garbhagriha.
North facade of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple East facade of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple
Garbhagrihas
Just like the main temple, the Kappe Chennigaraya shrine is dedicated to Vishnu. A life-size statue of Chennakeshava stands in the west garbhagriha, and a life-size statue of Venugopala stands in the south. Note that both Chennakeshava and Venugopala are different forms of Vishnu.
Venugopala standing in the south garbhagriha
The image shows the garbhagriha on the south side of the the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple. As you can see, the garbhagriha is a squarish chamber with the life-size idol of Venugopala standing at the rear wall on a square yoni platform. Portrayed as a divine flute player, Venugopala is a form of Krishna. In Kannanda, Venu means flute, and Gopala means protector of cows.
In Hindu mythology, Krishna is the eighth avatar of Vishnu. Check the Dashavatara painting on the Hampi Virupaksha Temple Murals for a list and description of the ten avatars of Vishnu.
As you can see from the image, Venugopala is standing with a tribhanga (bent in three places, knee, waist, and neck) pose and playing the flute. There is a similar garbhagriha housing the Chennakeshava idol on the west side of the temple.
The image below shows a narrative sculptural relief depicting Narasimhavatara, the fourth avatar of Vishnu, carved into the lintel of the south garbhagriha door. In this avatar, Vishnu has a manโs torso with a lionโs face and claws. He adopted this form to kill an asura named Hiranyakashipu, who wanted to take revenge on Vishnu for killing his brother Hiranyaksha in his previous avatar, i.e., Varahavatara, the third avatar of Vishnu.
Ugra Narasimha carved into the lintel of the south garbhagriha door
The relief depicts Vishnu with the lion head and human torso having multiple hands with claws. With the body of Hiranyakashipu lying on his lap, Vishnu is seen ripping the entrails of Hiranyakashipu with his claws. On the bottom left is Garuda, Vishnuโs vehicle, kneeling with his hands-folded. Surrounding this relief is a creeper making several circular patterns, each of which contains a small carving.
Navaranga
Lathe-turned pillars
The navaranga is the covered hall in front of a garbhagriha. Navaranga, which means nine sectors, is an essential element of the Hoysala temple architecture. In the navaranga design, the rectangular area is a grid of nine sections created by placing the pillars at the corners of the central section. A stone roof above these pillars covers the entire space.
The central section of the navaranga, known as sabhamantapa, is typically the largest. In Kannada, sabha means gathering, and mantapa means hall/pavilion. Thus, a sabhamantapa is like a community hall where people congregate.
As you can see from the image, the pillar in the near end is ornate with beautifully carved patterns. Mounted around the pillar and just below its capital are four finely-carved sculptures, popularly known as bracket figures.
Dance Floor in the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple
Many pillars in the navaranga appear to be precisely-cut and polished using sophisticated machinery, such as modern-day lathes. Because of their appearance, these are often called lathe-turned pillars, although nobody is sure how they were built. Lathe-turned pillars are a common feature in many Hoysala temples, including the main Chennakeshava Temple, and basadis (Jain temples).
A beautifully crafted circular stone covers the floor of the sabhmantapa, and was used as a dance floor during the Hoysala period. As you can see from the above image, the dance floor is a perfectly round stone platform, which still maintains its original polish even after thousand years and is a testament to the ingenuity and superior craftsmanship of the Hoysala artisans. There are four pillars at the corners of the dance floor.
Lakshminarayana carved on a section of the ceiling
The image shows a section of the ceiling in the navaranga. As you can see, the ceiling is recessed with a square-shaped niche and is carved with geometrical patterns at different levels of the niche. A sculptural relief depicting Lakshminarayana – a form of Vishnu presented with his consort Lakshmi – is at the center surrounded by finely carved geometrical patterns. Note that Lakshminarayana is a combination of two names, Lakshmi and Narayana. Narayana is another name of Vishnu, and it means one who dwells on the water. In Sanskrit, nara means water and ayana means dwelling. According to Hindu mythology, Vishnu lives on the cosmic ocean.
Carved out of the red sandstone cliffs of Badami, Cave 4 stands as a serene testament to Jain faith, art, and philosophy. Dedicated to Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, this cave temple brings together exquisite sculptures, spiritual symbolism, and architectural elegance, offering visitors a quiet journey into Indiaโs rich Jain heritage.
Cave 4 is one of the four rock-cut cave temples carved into a red sandstone hill near Badami in Karnataka, India. As the name suggests, it is the fourth cave encountered from the main entrance through which visitors enter the cave complex.
Explore the following pages for a detailed explanation of the other three caves:
Cave 4 is the smallest of the four rock-cut caves, historians believe that it was built in the early 7th century CE.
Unlike the other three caves, which are Hindu temples, Cave 4 is a Jain temple and is a testament to the peaceful co-existence of different religions in ancient India.
Layout and Access
Ground Plan of Badami Cave 4
Just like the other three caves, the garbhagriha(inner sanctum) is at the rear of the cave. In front of it are three successive halls: 1. Antarala (ante-chamber) 2. Sabhamantapa (main hall) 3. Mukhamantapa (verandah). The ground plan on the left shows the arrangement of these spaces.
The garbhagrihahouses a sculpture believed to depict Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, seated on a lion throne. Sculptural reliefs of Tirthankaras and the other Jain figures adorn the pillars and sidewalls of the halls.
Today, the only access to this cave is through a flight of steps from Cave 3. However, when the temple was originally built, it could also be approached from the eastern side.
Mahavira: The 24th Tirthankara โ Serene and Enlightened
The image shows a sculptural relief of a Tirthankara, most-likely Mahavira, seated majestically on a lion throne carved of the back wall of the garbhagriha.
Sculptural relief of 24th Tirthankara – Mahavira in the Garbhagriha
Mahavira is seated beneath a chaitya vriksha (sacred tree) with the Paryankasana posture โ a lotus-like pose with upward-facing palms placed one over the other. A prabhamandala (circle of light or halo) encircles his head, and above it rises a mukkode โ three ceremonial umbrellas stacked one above the other. Flanking him are two chamaradharas (male chamara bearers), while above them are two Vidyadhara couples performing pushpadhaare (offering a deluge of flowers).
Note: The word tirtha means a ford โ a shallow crossing of a river or stream โ and Tirthankara means ford maker. In Jain philosophy, a Tirthankara is an extraordinary being who understood the true meaning of samsara (continuous cycle of life, death, and rebirth) and obtained Kevala Jnana (Omniscience). He is a teacher who builds a ford for others (i.e., guides) to follow the path from samsara to moksha (liberation from Samsara).
The Majestic Figure of Adinatha โ the First Tirthankara
First Tirthankara – Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)
The image shows a life-size sculptural relief depicting Adinatha (also known as Rishabhanatha), the first of the 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism, carved into the left sidewall of the antarala. As seen in the image, he is flanked by 12 Tirthankaras on either side.
Adinatha is a Digambara(person with no clothes) and is standing with the Kayotsarga posture โ a stance symbolizing the renunciation of bodily movements and comfort. His long locks of hair flow over his shoulders.
Note: One of the distinguishing features of Adinathaโs iconography is the presence of these flowing locks, which help identify his sculptures
Parshvanatha: The Serpent-Crowned Tirthankara
The image shows a life-size sculptural relief of Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism, carved into the interior walls of Cave 4.
23rd Tirthankara – Parshvanatha
Parshvanatha is the successor of Neminatha and the predecessor of Mahavira, the most well-known and final Tirthankara. Historians believe that both Mahavira and Parshvanatha were historical figures.
Born in the holy city of Varanasi, Parshvanatha lived around 877 BCE and attained moksha on Mount Summeta (present-day Madhuban in the state of Jharkhand, India).
In this relief, Parshvanatha is depicted as a Digambara (person with no clothes) with the kayotsarga posture, i.e., meditating while standing. Notice the beautifully carved five-headed naga above his head, one of the distinctive features used to identify Parshvanatha.
Bahubali: The Ascetic Prince
Bahubali
The image shows a life-size sculptural relief depicting Bahubali carved into the interior walls of Cave 4.
Bahubali is one of the 100 sons of Adinatha (Rishabhanatha). Although Bharata, the eldest, was heir to the throne, Bahubali challenged him for sovereignty.
According to Jain tradition, Bahubali defeated his brother in three non-violent games. However, realizing the futility of worldly power, he renounced everything in disgust and lived the life of an ascetic. He is said to have meditated by standing up unclothed for twelve years to attain moksha. Because he was completely motionless, vines grew around his legs and body โ a distinctive feature of Bahubali’s standard iconography, which portrays him standing nude with his body encircled by vines.
The Devotion of Jakkave
Jakkave with Mahavira carved near the entrance of Cave 4
The relief shown in the image depicts a pious Jain nun named Jakkave, who is believed to have attained moksha through sallekhana. She is seated beside Mahavira, who is depicted with his standard iconography.
The carving of Jakkave appears on the right sidewall near the entrance to the cave.
Note: Sallekhana is a religious practice in Jainism in which a person gradually renounces food and bodily comforts while rigorously following certain vows to reduce human passions and attain spiritual purification.
Echoes of Jain Heritage
Though the smallest of the four caves, Cave 4 holds profound spiritual and artistic significance. The caveโs layout follows a traditional plan with a sanctum and successive halls, and its walls are adorned with life-size sculptural reliefs of Mahavira, Adinatha, Parshvanatha, and Bahubali, each rich in symbolic meaning. The presence of the Jain nun Jakkave further highlights the depth of devotion represented in the cave. Together, these carvings reflect the philosophical ideals of renunciation, enlightenment, and liberation, offering visitors a serene journey into Jain heritage preserved in stone.
Cave 1 is one of the four rock-cut cave temples carved out of a red sandstone hill near Badami in Karnataka, India. As its name suggests, it is the first cave encountered from the main entrance of the cave complex.
For detailed descriptions of the other three caves, refer to the following pages:
Dated to approximately to 550 CE, Cave 1 is the first of the four rock-cut caves in the Badami hills. It is a mantapa-style temple dedicated to Shiva. Visitors first enter the courtyard of the temple through a flight of steps and then ascend a second flight of steps to enter the interior of the temple.
Facade and Entrance
Ground plan
Excavated from the massive red sandstone boulder at 60 feet above ground level, Cave – 1 has an impressive rectangular faรงade measuring approximately 70 ft x 20 ft. As seen in the image, the faรงade is supported by four pillars and approached by a flight of steps. Flanking the faรงade on either side are two life-size sculptural reliefs, carved into the walls that extend from the faรงade.
The garbhagriha(sanctum sanctorum) is a small chamber housing the Shivalinga that was carved out of the stone at the rear-side of the cave. Like any traditional mantapa-style temple, there is a sabhamantapa(congregation hall) in front of the garbhagrihaand a mukhamantapa(verandah) in front of the sabhamantapa.
The faรงade shows the pillars of the mukhamantapaand the staircase leading to it. Inside the mukhamantapaand sabhamantapa, there are more pillars embellished with beautiful carvings. Extending the facade on the right and left are the walls carved with beautiful sculptural reliefs, which are described below.
Nataraja Performing Tandava Nritya
Carved into the right side extension, this large-size sculptural relief depicts Nataraja (Dancing King), a form of Shiva, performing the Tandava Nritya, a vigorous cosmic dance of creation, preservation, and destruction.
Nataraja carved into a wall on the right side of the Cave – 1 facade
Nataraja in this image is standing with an elegant dancing pose on a lotus flower pedestal, and his 18 hands carry a variety of objects, including a trishula(trident) and an ax. His vehicle Nandi is standing behind him, and his son Ganesha is standing to his left. An unidentified figure is seated behind Ganesha.
Dwarapala with Shiva-Parvati and Vrishabha-Kunjara
Dwarapala with Shiva-Parvati and Vrishaba-Kunjara
Carved into the left-side extension, this relief depicts the dwarapala (door-keeper) of Shiva. The dwarapala is holding a trishula (trident) with his right hand. Carved below the dwarapala is Vrishabha-Kunjara (Bull-Elephant), an illusionary sculpture with a single head joined by the torsos of the bull and elephant. It looks like an elephant from one side and a bull from the other side. Carved above the dwarapala is a relief of Shiva and Parvati seated on Nandi, Shivaโs vehicle.
To the right of dwarapala are the pillars of the mukhamantapa and to the left are the flights of steps to Cave 2.
Mukhamantapa: Richly Decorated Porch
As mentioned, the mukhamantapa is the front porch of the cave temple. It is ornate with beautifully carved reliefs on the lateral walls and the ceiling, which are described below.
Ardhanarishvara: Fusion of Shiva and Parvati
Ardhanarishvara and sage Bhringi carved on the right side wall of the mukhamantapa
Carved into the right-side wall of the mukhamantapa, this narrative sculptural relief depicts the story of Ardhanarisvara, a manifestation of Shiva as half man and half woman.
In this relief, Ardhanarishvara, who has man-like features on the right half and woman-like features on the left half, is standing with an elegant tribhanga stance (i.e., body bent in three places, neck, waist, and knee).
While appearing to play a musical instrument, Ardhanarishvara is gently leaning on his vehicle Nandi. Standing with the folded hands (i.e., namaste gesture) behind Nandi is Bhringi, a sage with three legs who appears like a skeleton. Standing to the left of Ardhanarishvara is an unidentified female figure carrying a bowl with her left hand. Flying above Ardhanarishvara are the Vidyadhara couples.
Read the Ardhanarishvara with Sage Bhringi page for a brief explanation of the story behind Shiva’s manifestation of Ardhanarishvara.
Harihara: Fusion of Shiva and Vishnu
Fusion of Shiva and Vishnu as Harihara
Situated on the left lateral wall of the mukhamantapa, this beautifully carved relief depicts Harihara, a symbolical fusion Vishnu and Shiva, two principal deities of the Hindu Trinity.
This composite form is created by combining half the features of Shiva and half those of Vishnu. As a result of this fusion, Harihara is revered by followers of both the Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions
As seen in the image, Harihara is carved with Shivaโs features on the left side and Vishnuโs features on the right side. Shivaโs consort Parvati and his mount Nandi stand beside the Shiva half, while Vishnuโs consort Lakshmi and his mount Garuda appear on the Vishnu half, reinforcing the dual identity of the deity.
A stunningly beautiful sculpture depicting Harihara can be found in one of the devakoshtas of the Durga Temple at Aihole, about 22 miles east of Badami. Like the Badami cave temples, this free-standing temple was built by the Badami Chalukyas and is richly adorned with sculptures and reliefs of comparable artistic excellence.
Coiled Nagaraja
Coiled Nagaraja carved into the ceiling
This intricately carved relief depicts Nagaraja, the mythical king of serpents, with multiple serpent heads and a human head above a torso extending into a spiraling serpent body.
As seen here, the Nagaraja has five serpent heads surrounding his human head. His coiled serpent bodyโgradually tapering as it spirals outwardโfits harmoniously within a finely engraved wheel. Enclosing the wheel is a square panel richly decorated with flower-like patterns.
An inside view showing the garbhagriha entrance and pillars
Shivalinga inside the garbhagriha
The image captures the interior of Cave 1, where a flight of steps leads up to the entrance of the garbhagriha. Inside the sanctum, the shivalinga is not a separately installed structure but is carved from the rock itself, created at the same time this cave temple was excavated.
Notice that the shivalinga rests on a square-shaped yoni, an uncommon feature, as most shivalingas in Indian temples are set onoval-shaped yonis.
