Delphi

Located on the slopes of Mount Parnassos in central Greece, Delphi was best known for its oracle in ancient times. Ancient Greeks treated this site with great reverence as it overlooks a spectacular and awe-inspiring landscape. Delphi was unique in that it was not a city-state but a religious center that was administered by an alliance of Greek city-states. Although Greek city-states fought among themselves, they were united in developing this site.

Fascinated by the mystery of the oracle, people have been flocking to Delphi from all over the world for more than a century. The archaeological site of Delphi, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, provides a glimpse of its past glory. The ruins at this site include the Temple of Apollo, Treasury of the Athenians, a theater and stadium.

Location

History

In ancient times, Greeks considered Delphi as the navel of the earth. According to Greek mythology, Zeus wanted to find the navel of the earth, which in other words the center of the earth. To accomplish this task he sent two eagles, one to the east and the other to the west. The eagles crossed their paths at Delphi making it the navel of the earth. The name Delphi is derived from delphys which in archaic Greek means womb and refers to the womb of the Mother Earth.

The earliest known human settlement in Delphi dates back to the Neolithic period (around 4000 BCE). Later, the Mycenaean civilization established a settlement here in the 2nd millennium BCE.

Delphi was initially famous for the worship of goddess Gaia (Mother Earth), and a temple existed for this goddess at the site of the Temple of Apollo.

Later the cult of Apollo took roots in Delphi replacing the worship of Gaia. This cult grew out of a legend based on Apollo’s slaying of an evil python who was a son of Gaia and was roaming Mount Parnassos creating havoc.

The building of the Sanctuary of Apollo started in the 8th century BCE and reached its peak in the 6th century BCE when it became the most important religious center for Greeks.

Delphi was not a city-state, but a protectorate of Amphictyonia (Amphictyonic League), an alliance of Greek tribes from Sterea (south-central Greece) and Thessaly, which controlled it from 7th to 4th century BCE. The Delphi area was considered autonomous. The Amphictyonic League administered it and chose the priests of the Temple of Apollo.

However, in 356 BCE, an alliance of Phocians, Athenians, and Spartans took control of this sanctuary. Their control was short-lived because King Philip of Macedonia defeated them and handed over the site back to the Amphictyonia alliance. He interfered again in 338 BCE and took control of the site himself.

Roman Period

The Roman Empire took control of this site in 191 BCE, but let the religious ceremonies, including the practice of foretelling by the oracle, to continue. Many high-ranking Romans regularly consulted the oracle. Emperor Hadrian was believed to have visited Delphi and consulted the oracle. However, the Roman general Sulla plundered this site in 86 BCE to finance his wars in Greece.

Decline

Although the practice of foretelling by the oracle continued for a couple of centuries, it gradually started losing its prominence. The final death knell came from the Christians who wanted to end the pagan practices. In 394 BCE, Byzantine Emperor Theodosius issued an edict abolishing the oracle and other pagan practices at Delphi and other sanctuaries all over the Roman empire. Even after the oracle was abolished, Delphi continued to thrive for another three centuries. As Christianity became prominent, Christians started flourishing in this area, and there was even a Basilica. Delphi was eventually abandoned in 6th or 7th century CE.

Pythian Games

Starting 586 BCE, Delphi hosted the Pythian Games every four years to celebrate Apollo’s victory, and it was second only to the Olympic Games in importance. The winner of a game received the laurels picked from the Temple of Apollo. They continued until 424 CE.

Sanctuary of Apollo

The Sanctuary of Apollo includes the Temple of Apollo and the Sacred Way which is the path from the entrance to this temple. Above the temple, there is a theater and a stadium where the Pythian Games were held.

Sacred Way

The Sacred Way was the path leading from the entrance to the Sanctuary of the Apollo to the Temple of the Apollo. This sanctuary was visited by the people from various Greek states to ask questions of the oracle.

Because of the slope, the path was zigzag with a few stairs in some places but was well paved. The Greek city-states competed against each other by building structures on either side of the path. Many city-states had treasury buildings which were used as the place to deposit their votive offerings by their citizens.

Roman Agora

A typical ancient Greek city-state had an agora, which means meeting place in Greek. It is equivalent to a modern city-square or plaza. Because the people gathered in the agora, merchants set up shops in and around the agora to sell a variety of goods and services. Because of these shops, the agora became synonymous with the marketplace.

Once the Romans took control of Delphi, they remodeled the existing agora sometime in the 4th century CE. It became known as the Roman Agora because the remodeled buildings appeared more Roman than Greek.

The Roman Agora is the first stop on the Sacred Way to the Temple of Apollo. Just like any other temples scenes around the world, this is where the pilgrims bought the votive offerings and proceeded to the temple.

Temple of Apollo

The Temple of Apollo was the most important and dominant structure in the Sanctuary of Apollo. According to a Greek myth, this is where the Omphalos (navel of the earth) stone was found.

The Temple of Apollo was built and remodeled many times at the same site. The first temple was built by the legendary architects Trofonios and Agamedes in the 7th century and was destroyed by a fire in 548 BCE. It was replaced in 525 BCE by a bigger temple, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 373 BCE. The third temple was built with almost the same plan and dimensions of its predecessor in 320 BCE.

Surviving columns of the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, Greece — The Temple of Apollo

Oracle of Delphi

Although the oracle existed during the Gaia times, it became prominent after the cult of Apollo gained importance. The Oracle of Apollo was a priestess called Pythia whom the people believed was a mouthpiece of Apollo.

The Oracle sat on a tripod in the inner sanctum of the temple inhaling vapors emanating from a fissure in front of her. According to a myth, the body of the python slain by Apollo fell into this fissure and vapors emanated from the decomposing body of the python. Intoxicated by vapors, Sybil the first oracle went into a trance and answered questions and foretold the future.

Young women from the nearby villages were chosen as priestesses of the temple and one of them would officiate as the oracle. Answers given by the oracle were vague and cryptic, but the priests at the Temple of Apollo interpreted them for the people.

Architecture

The Temple of Apollo is Doric in style with 6 columns on the front and 15 on the sides.

The east pediment depicted a scene when Apollo when he arrived with sister Artemis and mother Leto. The west pediment depicted Gigantomachy, which is the story of the giant’s battle with Olympian gods. The sculptures on the pediment used marble from the island of Paros, and Athenian sculptors Praxias and Androsthenes helped to build them. Only a few fragments of the pediments survived and are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.

The seat of the oracle was located inside the cella (inner chamber) called the adyton which had the statue of Apollo and Omphalos. Like many other Greek temples, an eternal flame burned in the hestia (hearth) located at the rear of the cella.

The walls of the pronaos (vestibule of the temple) had inscriptions of saying attributed to the seven Greek sages. These sayings include “know thyself” and “everything in moderation. “

Omphalos

In the ancient Greek language, the word Omphalos means “naval.” The Omphalos of Delphi refers to a conical-shaped stone that represents the navel of the earth.

According to Pausanias, a Greek historian who visited Delphi in the second century CE, a copy of Omphalos draped with wreaths was kept near the seat of oracle in the inner chamber (adyton) of the Temple of Apollo. Ancient Greeks believed that this is where Apollo killed the evil python, and Omphalos was used to communicate directly with the gods.

Experts believe that many copies of Omphalos existed in the Sanctuary of Apollo. The archaeological site of Delphi has one of the stones, and another one is in the Delphi Archaeological Museum. See the images below.

Omphalos

Dancers of Delphi

Displayed at the Delphi Archaeological Museum, the Dancers of Delphi is a sculpture with three female figures, fragments of which were found on the terraces in the east and northeast part of the Temple of Apollo in 1894. See the images below.

The Dancers of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum

Experts believe that this sculpture was located in the adyton (inner sanctum) of the Temple of Apollo and a part of the column that was holding the Omphalos stone. It was likely that there was a tripod-like structure – probably made of bronze – between the heads of the dances and the Omphalos stone.

Halos

A circular space near the Temple of Apollo.

Altar of Chiots

Built by the people of Aegean island of Chios in the 4th century BCE, the Alter of Chiots became the main altar of the 3rd temple that was rebuilt in 330 BCE.

This monument is located in front of the Temple of Apollo and there is a large open space between the altar and the temple. An ancient staircase leads to this altar and to the temple from the Sacred Way. The altar was made of black marble except for the base and cornice which were made of white marble.

Delphi: Base of the Altar of Chiots — Base of the Altar of Chiots

Polygonal Wall

The Polygonal Wall was built as a retaining wall to support the terrace that houses the temple platform. This was introduced during the construction of the second temple in 548 BCE.

Some stones on the Polygonal Wall have detailed inscriptions that were carved sometime in 2nd or 3rd century BCE. These inscriptions mostly mention the emancipation of slaves.

Polygonal retention wall of Temple of Apollo — Polygonal Wall

The polygonal walls get their name from the polygonal shapes of the stones that were used to build the wall. Notice that the Polygonal Wall shown in the image has some curved stones in addition to the polygonal stones.

The polygonal walls are considered an engineering marvel because of the way in which they were built. The walls did not make use of mortar or cement because the stones with irregular shapes and sizes that made up the wall fit perfectly.

It appears as though the stones were precisely cut and polished using sophisticated machinery. However, there is no evidence to suggest that such machinery or tools existed in ancient times. In all likelihood, engineers in those days must have devised some ingenious techniques to build such walls using primitive tools.

One of the main advantages of polygonal walls is that they withstand earthquakes very well, as evidenced in Delphi, which suffered numerous earthquakes for the past 2500 years. The polygonal walls in Delphi have some similarities with the polygonal walls used in the structures built by the Incas in Cusco and Saksaywaman. These places are also located on the severe earthquake zone, and the Inca structures seem to have withstood earthquakes very well.

Stoa of the Athenians

The Stoa of the Athenians was built against the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo. This structure was used to house the trophies won by the Athenians in their naval victories. The façade originally had seven columns, only four of them have survived. The roof was believed to be wooden. It was built between 510 and 470 BCE.

Kings of Argos Monument

The city-state of Argos, which had many kings before it became a democracy, built this monument to house the statues of its kings. It is a semi-circular structure with niches to hold bronze statues. While the plan was to house twenty statues, the city-state of Argos was able to erect only ten statues.

King of Argos monument at Delphi — King of Argos monument

Silver Bull

The image shows the statue of a bull reconstructed from the fragments of silver sheets excavated at the Sanctuary of Apollo. It is on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. The base of the statue is located somewhere near the entrance of the Sacred Way.

Naxian Sphinx

Located below the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo, Naxian Sphinx was a votive offering at the Temple of Apollo by the people of Naxos, an island belonging to the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea. It is a statue of the mythical creature that has the head of a woman, the body of a lion and wings of an eagle. In ancient times, sphinxes were considered guardians of tombs and sanctuaries. The statue was constructed in 560 BCE and was made from Naxian marble. It stood on a free-standing tall Ionic column that was 12 meters high and was an imposing sight at that time.

Marble statue of Naxian Sphinx on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum

Pillar of King Prusias II of Bithynia

Situated on the northeast entrance of the Temple of Apollo, this monument was erected to honor King Prusias II of Bithynia in 182 BCE. The pillar is 9.7 meters high and the statue of the king on the horseback once stood on top of it.

This monument was an offering to the Temple of Apollo by Bithynia, a kingdom of Thracian tribe Bithyni, and located in the northwest region of Asia Minor (currently in the Anatolia province of Turkey).

Treasuries

Along the Sacred Way, there were many treasuries built by the individual city-states to help their citizens store the votive offerings. They included the Treasury of the Athenians, Treasury of the Siphnians, Treasury of the Boeotians and Treasury of the Sikyonians.

Treasury of the Athenians

The Treasury of the Athenians was built by the city-state of Athens to commemorate the Battle of Marathon in 496 BCE. The purpose of this building was to house the offerings brought by Athenians to be offered the Temple of Apollo.

The site was excavated by the French School of Athens, which reconstructed the monument at the site in 1903-1906. The architectural style of this building is the Doric Order. The metopes on this building are replicas, and the originals (mostly fragments) are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.

Note: A metophe is a rectangular architectural element that is placed in the space between two sets of vertical tablets on a Doric frieze.

Treasury of the Siphnians

The Treasury of the Siphnians was built around 525 BCE by the city-state of Siphnos, which is also an island in the Aegean Sea. The people of Siphnos accumulated wealth by mining silver and gold. They used tithe of the profits from mining to build this monument.

Just like the Treasure of the Athenians, the purpose of this building was to house the votive offerings brought by the people of Siphnos.

Treasury of the Siphnians at Delphi — Treasury of the Siphnians

Siphnians Treasury caryatid on display at the Delphi museum — Siphnians Treasury caryatid on display at the Delphi Museum

The architecture style of this building is the Ionic Order. It had rich decorations including caryatids (female figures) as supporting columns of structures. See the image below. It had pediments on all the four sides, each of which is adorned with beautiful sculptures depicting stories from Greek mythology.

Votive Offerings

Twins of Argos

The two life-sized marble statues of two brothers – Cleobis and Biton – were votive offerings at the Sanctuary of Apollo by the city of Argos which is located in the Argolis region of Peloponnese.

Both the statues and one of the bases with inscription were found near the Treasury of the Athenians in 1893. They were dated approximately 580 BCE.

Statues of Argos Twins on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum

Charioteer of Delphi

Bronze statue of a charioteer on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum

The Charioteer of Delphi is a life-size bronze statue of a young man on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. This masterpiece was part of a bigger sculpture containing a chariot, fours horses and two charioteers (one of them is this statue) and was found intact in the Sanctuary of Apollo in 1896.

This was a votive offering to the Temple of Apollo in 474 BCE to honor the victory in a chariot race in the Pythian Games.

Theater

The theater is located above the Temple of Apollo and is well-preserved. It was built sometime in the 4th century BCE and underwent remodeling several times.

During the Pythian Games, this theater hosted music competitions, and during important festivals, it hosted plays and other theatrical performances.

Athens

A Modern City with a Glorious Past

Known as the birthplace of democracy, Athens is a city with a long and glorious past, which started as early as 1400 BCE as an important center of the Mycenaean civilization. Athens is where western civilization took roots. At its heyday, Athens was the leader of the Greek city-states. It was home to many great philosophers, including Socrates (469 – 399 BCE), Aristotle (427 – 347 BCE) and Plato (384 – 322 BCE). In addition to philosophy, Athens was at the forefront of arts, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.

After Athens declined as the powerhouse of the Greek city-states, it was ruled by Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. Many iconic structures of Greece that include Parthenon are in Athens. The ruins of ancient monuments that are spread all over the city speak of different eras in Athens’ history.

Location

Athens is also called Athina in Greek. It is located on mainland Greece.

Modern Athens

Athens is the capital of Greece and a cosmopolitan city. It also has one of the biggest ports in Europe. The port of Piraeus is part of greater Athens and handles large passenger traffic.

Syntagma Square

This is the central square of Athens where the Greek Parliament building is located.

Parliament Building

The current Greek Parliament building was built in 1836 as the royal palace of King Otto I, the first king of modern Greece.

Tomb of the Unknown Soldier

The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is in the front of the Greek Parliament building and guarded by the members of the presidential guards.

National Gardens

The Greek National Gardens is located behind the Parliament building.

Monument to Lord Byron at the National Gardens, Athens

Trees at the National Gardens

Athens Olympics Games

The modern Olympic Games are modeled after the ancient Olympic Games that were held in Olympia for many centuries in ancient times. The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens on April 6, 1896, and held again there in 2004.

Panathenaic Stadium

The Panathenaic Stadium is one of the main attractions of Athens. The original stadium at this site was built in 330 BCE and was remodeled in 144 CE by Herodus Atticus, an Athenian aristocrat who rose became a Roman Senator. This site was excavated in 1869 and a new stadium was reconstructed at the same site.

It was used for the opening and closing ceremonies of the first modern Olympic Games. This stadium was remodeled for the 2004 Olympic Games. This venue was the finishing point for the men’s and women’s Marathon races. In addition, the archery competition was held there. It currently being used for a variety of purposes, including as a venue to transfer the Olympic flame to the host nation.

Views of the City

The city of Athens contains many hills, including Acropolis, Philopappu and Lycabettus hills. The views of Athens with these hills are spectacular.

A view of Athens showing Mount Lycabettus

A view of Athens showing the Philopappos hill and monument

A view of Athens showing the Philopappos (Philopappu) monument

A view of Athens from Acropolis showing the Hadrian's Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus

A view of Athens showing the Hadrian’s Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus

Views of Athens

Ancient Athens

Acropolis

The Acropolis is a citadel located on a flat-topped rock in the city of Athens. It is about 500 ft above sea level and has a dominating presence in Athens.

The Acropolis was inhabited since the Neolithic period (6th century BCE). It is believed that it had a Mycenaean Megaroon when Athens was part of the Mycenaean Empire.

The Acropolis has ruins of many iconic structures of Greece, including the Parthenon.

Parthenon

The Parthenon is known all over the world as an iconic symbol of ancient Greece and western civilization. It is also regarded as a symbol of democracy.

Located at the center of Acropolis, the Parthenon was built as a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin) by Pericles. It replaced the existing temple of Athena, which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE. The construction of Parthenon began in 447 BCE and ended in 438 BCE. A gold and ivory statue of Athena stood in the cella (inner sanctum) of the temple. In addition to being a temple of goddess Athena, it also served as a treasury.

Parthenon - A monument located on Athens Acropolis — Parthenon – A monument located on Athens Acropolis

Destruction

Over the years, the Parthenon was plundered, destroyed and converted many times. The Germanic tribes destroyed inner a part of Parthenon in the 3rd or 4th century. When Athens came under the Roman Empire, the Parthenon was converted to a church in the 6th century by early Christians and was called the church of Holy Wisdom. In the 11th century, it was dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After the Frankish crusaders took over Athens, it became the Church of Notre Dame in 1204. When the Ottoman Empire took control of Athens in 1458, the Parthenon was converted to a mosque and a minaret was added to it.

A large part of Parthenon was destroyed during the bombardment of Athens by Venetians in 1687. During the war with the Republic of Venice, the Ottoman Empire stored ammunition inside the Parthenon. A cannonball fired by the Venetian troops led by the Venetian general Francisco Morosini hit the Parthenon directly igniting the stored ammunition and resulting in the destruction of precious sculptures and part of the structure.

One of the biggest damage to the Parthenon was caused by then English Ambassador to Constantinople, Thomas Bruce (7th Earl of Elgin), who in 1801- 1802 bribed Turkish authorities and sawed away many priceless sculptures and transported them to England. Today most of them are on display in the British Museum in London.

The Parthenon is now a UNESCO World Heritage site and is currently being restored by the Greek Government.

Odeon of Herodes Atticus

This theater was built in 161 CE on the southwest slopes of Acropolis by Herodes Atticus to honor his wife Aspacia Anna Regilla. Herodes Atticus was an aristocratic Athenian who became a Roman Senator. He was responsible for constructing many buildings in Greece and Athens in particular.

The Odeon was used as a music theater and could seat about 5000 people. It was destroyed by a Germanic tribe in 267 CE.

Odeon of Herodes Atticus

The facade of Odeon of Herodes Atticus

Odeon of Herodes Atticus

Erechtheion

Built on a slope on the north side of Acropolis in Athens, Greece, the Erechtheion, a temple built by the famous sculptor Phidias and dedicated to the legendary King Erichthonius, is second only to the Parthenon in importance. Its complex ground plan has porches on the east, north and south sides. The east side porch is dedicated to Athena and the west side to Poseidon. The construction of the original monument began in 420 BCE and ended in 406 BCE. After Roman General Sulla sacked it 80 BCE, it underwent many modifications in the subsequent years.

Porch of the Caryatids

Erechtheion - A monument located at Athens Acropolis — Erechtheion

The image shows the south side porch of the Erechtheion. As you can see from the image, the porch has six caryatids, which are replicas. The original caryatids were moved to the museums for safekeeping. Five of them are now in the new Acropolis Museum in Athens, and the sixth, which was taken by Lord Elgin in the 19th century to decorate his mansion in Scotland, is in the British Museum in London.

Original Caryatid on display at the Acropolis Museum

Note: A Caryatid in Greek architecture is a female sculpture that serves as a column that helps to support a structure.

A recent study suggests that this building was referred to as the Parthenon in ancient texts, instead of the structure we now identify as the Parthenon, because it fits the name and description in those texts. Note that Parthenon means a room for virgins in Greek.

Theatre of Dionysus

As the name suggests, this theater was dedicated to Dionysus, the god of plays and wine. Situated on the foothills of Acropolis, this theater in its current form could seat as many as 17,000 people. The theater was in existence since 6th century BCE but underwent many modifications. It is believed to be the birthplace of Greek tragedy.

Arch of Hadrian (Hadrian’s Gate)

This is a Roman-era monument honoring Roman Emperor Hadrian.

Hadrian's Arch at Athens — Hadrian’s Arch

Temple of Olympian Zeus

The Temple of Olympian Zeus is located near the Arch of Hadrian, and as the name suggests it is dedicated to Olympian Zeus. The construction of this temple started in the 6th century BCE but completed much later by the Roman Emperor Hadrian.

The original temple when completed had 104 columns, out which only 16 survived.

Temple of Olympian Zeus at Athens — Temple of Olympian Zeus

Hadrian's Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus view from the Athens Acropolis — Hadrian’s Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus

Ancient Agora

In ancient Greek cities, the Agora was like the public square where people assembled to hear announcements, engage in political discourses, watch theatrical performances and athletic contests, and participate in religious activities. Because the Agora was a meeting place of people, it also served as a market place.

The Ancient Agora of Athens was the center of Athenian democracy where the political power was exercised. Starting from the 6th century BCE, the Agora gradually expanded to contain numerous public buildings, fountains, temples, and statues and attained the final form in the 2nd century CE. The image below shows the map of the Ancient Agora when it reached this form.

Temple of Hephaestus (Hēphaistos)

Hephaestus is the Greek god of fire and metal works and was worshiped by craftsmen and artisans in ancient Greece, especially in Athens.

The Temple of Hephaestus is one of the well-preserved buildings in Athens. It has two facades, one facing east and the other west. The east facade faces the Agora.

Temple of Hephaestus

Temple of Hephaestus – Interior

Temple of Hephaestus

The temple was converted to the church of St George in the 7th century. This is also the place where the first of king of modern Greece, King Otto, was officially received.

Byzantine Period

As Athens became Christian, the pagan traditions of Athens disappeared. Ancient buildings such as Parthenon were converted to churches and many new churches were built. During this period Athens lost its character, and the grandeur and splendor with which Greeks built their buildings were gone forever.

Church of the Holy Apostles

This church was built in the 11th century but was altered many times. It was restored to the current form in 1956.

Church of Holy Apostles at Athens — Athens: Church of Holy Apostles

Contact

← Back

Thank you for your response. ✨

Crete

Located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Crete is the biggest island in the Aegean Sea. This is where the Minoan civilization, a mysterious culture that was well ahead of their time, thrived more than 4000 years ago.

Crete has many archaeological sites belonging to the Minoan civilization, including palaces at the following four sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Zakros. The Palace at Knossos is the most famous among them.

Knossos

Knossos is believed to the oldest city in Europe and is the place of the legendary King Minos.

Discovery and Excavation

Although Minos Kalokairinos, a merchant of Heraklion, discovered Knossos in 1878, the credit for bringing world’s attention to Knossos goes to Arthur Evans, a British archaeologist who started excavation in 1900 and continued until 1934 with some interruptions during World War I. He and his team retrieved a large number of artifacts and restored and reconstructed parts of the palace. Some of the reconstruction was the creation of Arthur Evans imagination. Based on his findings, he published a four-volume book work titled The Palace of Minos at Knossos.

The team led by Arthur Evans also discovered tablets inscribed two different scripts, which he named them as Linear A and Linear B. While they appear similar, the contents of the inscriptions belong to two entirely different languages. The language of Linear A is Minoan, which is probably close to Sanskrit, whereas the language of Linear B is Mycenaean, which is close to Greek.

Because of its closeness to Greek, Linear B inscriptions have been mostly deciphered. The Linear B tablets were inscribed later than Linear A tablets. It appears Linear B descended from Linear A and the Mycenaean used it even after the collapse of the Minoan civilization.

Palace at Knossos

The Knossos Palace was a massive complex of structures that included royal quarters, religious halls and storage rooms. There were two versions of palaces at Knossos. An earthquake destroyed the first palace (1900 – 1700 BCE ). A new palace (1700 – 1450 BCE) was then built at the same site.

Knossos had maze-like structures with some buildings having multiple floors. See the images below.

Ruins of Palace at Knossos in Crete, Greece — Ruins of Palace at Knossos

Ruins of a multi-storied structure at the Knossos Palace in Crete, Greece — Ruins of Palace at Knossos

Ruins of the Palace of Knossos

The entire complex was designed with a very sophisticated water management system to supply fresh water to the residential quarters and an underground sewage system to flush out the waste. The water was available even on the upper floors of multi-storied buildings.

Horns of Consecration

As mentioned earlier, the bull played an important role in Minoan religion and everyday life. Many buildings in the Knossos site had the bull horns like structures on the top. Arthur Evans called them “Horns of Consecration.”

The image below shows the reconstructed structure of bull horns.

Horns of Consecration representing sacred bull horns at the Palace of Knossos — Horns of Consecration representing sacred bull horns

The Horns of Consecration symbols were found on Minoan seals as well.

Hall with Columns and Frescoes

The ruins have many reconstructed halls with wooden columns painted black and red as shown in the image below. Arthur Evans used archaeological facts and some imagination to reconstruct the hall, and he did so by using modern materials.

Unlike the columns in Greek buildings elsewhere, the Minoan columns are wider at the top and narrower at the bottom.

Reconstructed hall with columns and frescoes at the Palace of Knossos — Reconstructed hall with columns and frescoes

Mounted on the walls are the copies of the frescoes that were reconstructed by using their fragments found at this site.

Throne Room

The Throne Room is one of the important structures in the Knossos Palace. The purpose of this room is still being debated.

Built into the wall in the middle of the room is a rock throne flanked on each side by the frescoes of Griffins, which are the mythological creatures with the head and wings of an eagle and body and tail of a lion.

Griffin Fresco in the Throne Room at Knossos

A circular tub called lustral basin In front of the throne, which was likely used for ceremonial purposes. Built into the wall next to the throne are the benches that can accommodate about 16 people.

King’s Megaron

Believing that this place was King Minos’s apartment, Arthur Evans named it King’s Megaron. Using some imagination, he reconstructed it using modern materials. He also placed a reconstructed wooden throne inside this structure.

This structure is also called the Hall of the Double Axes because of the double-axe symbols found engraved on the walls of a well inside this structure.

Kings’ Megaron

Queen’s Megaron

The Queen’s Megaron was assumed by Arthur Evans to be the queen’s apartment, but there is no archaeological evidence to prove it. The suite has a hall with the famous Dolphins fresco, bathroom, toilet, and small well.

Bastion of the Bull

Located near the northern entrance, Bastion of the Bull is yet another structure reconstructed by Arthur Evans by using his imagination. As you can see in the image below, the famous Charging Bull fresco is engraved on its wall.

Theater Area

This where the visitors to the palace were received. The Theater Area is also connected to a road called Royal Road.

Arts

The Minoan art includes frescoes, pottery and bronze sculptures.

Frescoes

Beautiful and colorful frescoes decorated the walls of the Minoan palaces and houses. They followed a certain color code, perhaps borrowed from the Egyptians. Some of the codes are, red for men, white for women, yellow for gold.

The images below show the replicated frescoes displayed at the ruins of the Knossos Palace.

Ladies in Blue fresco on display at the Knossos Palace in Crete, Greece

Dolphins fresco found in Queen's Megaron at the archaeological site of Knossos in Crete, Greece — Ladies in Blue fresco on display at the Knossos Palace in Crete, Greece

Frescoes on display at the Palace of Knossos

Prince of the Lilies Fresco

This is one of the well-known Minoan fresco and believed to represent the Priest-King of Knossos. It was reconstructed from the fragments retrieved from the archaeological site. The duplicate fresco is on display at the Corridor of Procession in the Knossos Palace.

Bull Leaping Fresco

The Bull-Leaping fresco depicts a dangerous game of leaping over a bull, and it was played by both men and women. In the image shown below, the person who leaps over the bull is believed to be a man and the persons standing in the front and back of the bull are believed to be women. The gender of the players is inferred from the color code used by the painters, i.e., light color for women and brown for men.

It appears that the game of Bull Leaping was important to the Minoan culture, and the game could have been ceremonial.

Fresco displayed at the Palace of Knossos depicting the game of Bull Leaping — Fresco depicting the game of Bull Leaping

Pottery

Although smaller pots were discovered in the Minoan archaeological sites, Minoans were known for their giant jars called Pithoi.

Pithoi Jars

Pithoi jars were likely used as storage devices for liquids, grains, dried fish and olives. Several hundreds of them were found in the ruins at Knossos. Because of their size, they were typically placed on the ground floors. Pithois are differentiated based on their size, the number of handles and decoration on the outer surface.

Arthur Evans found a number of giant Pithoi jars in one place, which he named it “The Magazines of Giant Pithoi.” See the images below.

Pithoi jars found at the ruins of Palace at Knossos in Crete, Greece — Pithoi jars found at the ruins of Palace at Knossos in Crete

Jars at "The Magazines of the Great Pithoi" at the Knossos Palace in Crete, Greece — Pithoi jars found at the ruins of Palace at Knossos in Crete

Contact

← Back

Thank you for your response. ✨

Greek Islands

The blue waters of the Aegean Sea are home to a large number of islands belonging to Greece. Only 227 among them are inhabited. Each inhabited island has its own legend, history, and culture. Crete, which was home to the Minoan civilization, is the largest and Santorini is the most popular.

Mykonos

The island of Mykonos belongs to the Cyclades group of the islands in the Aegean Sea. According to a legend, the island was formed by the bodies of giants petrified after Hercules killed them. The island was named after the grandson of Apollo. Chora is the main city and also a major tourist attraction. Windmills dot the island and many of them are in Chora.

Mykonos water front and Little Venice

Windmills of Mykonos

Island of Mykonos

The beautiful coastline of Mykonos makes it worthwhile to watch the sunset.

Because of its spectacular landscape, the moonlit night sky at Mykonos is beautiful and serene.

Santorini

The island of Santorini is also part of the Cyclades and one of the most visited places in Greece. What we see now is the remnants of Thera, a bigger island that was the center of a massive volcanic eruption happened 3600 years ago during the height of Minoan civilization.

Although Fira is the biggest town in Santorini, the Village of Oia is the most scenic and a photographer’s paradise.

As you can see from the map below, the outline formed by the archipelago of Santorini has the shape of a caldera.

Oia Village

Located on the northwest corner of Santorini, the Village of Oia is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world. It is about 500 feet above sea level.

The Oia village is famous for the panoramic view of the steep cliffs that were part of the volcanic caldera which appears to rise from the sea. As you can see from the images below, most of the buildings in this village are built on the slopes of the caldera and are painted with white and some of them have blue domes.

Scenic Oia village of Santorini

Castle of Agios Nikolaos

Spinning Wheel of Oia Village

Scenic Oia village

Scenic Oia Village

Scenic views from Oia Village

The Oia village is also known for the traditional cave houses, which were built on the slopes of the caldera over the past few centuries by the crews of the ships and poor families who could not afford houses on the top of the cliff.

They are typically single room residential units built by carving out the earth from on the slopes. Because of the igneous rocks that made up the caldera, these houses were warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer. Now some of these houses are converted into vacation homes for tourists.

Church of Panagia of Platasani at Oia village — Church of Panagia of Platasani

Sunset

The sunset at the Oia Village is spectacular and a photographer’s dream.

Sunset at Oia Village, Santorini

Sunset as seen from the Oia Village

Wine

Santorini is also famous for its wine called Vin Santo and is well -known to wine lovers all over the world. The grape vines in Santorini are coiled like a basket and kept low on the ground in order to avoid the strong winds coming from the ocean.

The wine-making tradition in Santorini dates back thousands of years. Grapes grown on the soil contain volcanic ash and the Mediterranean climate gives the wine a distinct taste.

Patmos

Known in the Christian world as the island of Apocalypse, Patmos is where St. John the Evangelist spent later part of his life and wrote the Book of Revelations living in a cave.

Being a Disciple of Jesus and the one who wrote one of the four gospels, St John said to have traveled to Ephesus and preached the gospel there in the Great Theater. Because of his evangelization activities, the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Domitian (81-96 CE) banished him to Patmos.

After the death of Domitian, St. John was released from exile and reported to have returned to Ephesus. Unlike the other Apostles of Jesus who were all martyred, St. John died a natural death at the ripe age of 92. It is believed that he died in Ephesus.

Monastery of St. John the Theologian

The cave where St. John lived and wrote The Book of Revelations is a big tourist attraction. The Monastery of St. John the Theologian was built in the 11th century around this cave.

Frescoes on the walls of Monastery of St. John the Theologian

A finely-carved wooden door at the Monastery of St. John the Theologian in Patmos, Greece

Monastery of St. John the Theologian – A finely-carved wooden door

Monastery of St. John the Theologian

Monastery of St. John the Theologian

Scenic View

Just like the other islands in the Aegean Sea, Patmos is very scenic and a popular tourist attraction.

A panoramic view

A panoramic view from the Island of Patmos

Island of Patmos as seen from the sea

Scenic views around the island of Patmos

Crete

See Crete

Greece

Inca

Inca Civilization

The Inca Empire at its peak spanned from Colombia in the north and Bolivia to the south and was comparable to the Roman Empire in its size. The Inca called their empire Tawantinsuyu, and it was the Spanish who gave the name Inca to this empire. The name “Inca” means “Lord“ in Quechua.

Just like the Roman Empire, the Inca Empire started as a city-state in Cuzco. According to the legend, the Sun God sent four of its sons, called Ayar siblings, and their wives to the sacred city of Cuzco to establish an empire. Cuzco eventually became the capital of the Inca Empire.

The Inca Emperors, who were called Sapa Inca, were worshiped as divinity. When an Inca ruler died, his title went to his son and he became the ruler of the empire.

According to Spanish historians, there were 13 Inca emperors, including the founder Manco Capac and the last king Atahualpa, who was executed by the Spanish Conquistadors.

Once the empire was founded, it expanded rapidly because of the excellent organization skills and efficient governance. The Inca society was community-based and everyone worked for the community.

The Inca society was run like a socialist state. The emperor and his family-owned 1/3 of the land, the religious institutions owned the 1/3 and rest went to the farmers. The Inca government collected grains as taxes from the farmers and stored them in large storage houses and distributed to the rest of the populations. Likewise, they collected the textiles and distributed the entire population. They kept meticulous records of transactions using quipus.

The Inca were the ruling class and were a small portion of the population they ruled. The population of the Inca Empire was diverse and included the people they conquered.

The Inca Empire was divided into regions called suyus. There were the following four suyus: Chinchaysuyu (north region), Antisuyu (east region), Kuntisuyu (west region) and Qollasuyu (south region).

Spanish Conquest

The Spanish conquest of Peru started in 1531 when the Spanish Conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro arrived in Cuzco. At that time, the Inca Empire was in turmoil because of the power struggle between the two sons – Atahualpa and Huascar – of the emperor Huayna Capac, who died suddenly of smallpox.

Francisco Pizarro seizing the opportunity captured Atahualpa and demanded ransom for his release. Even after Pizarro received the ransom, he refused to release Atahualpa. In the meantime, Atahualpa’s brother Huascar was assassinated. Pizarro accused Atahualpa of the assassination of Huascar and executed him in 1533 CE.

After the execution of Atahualpa, Pizarro installed Manco Inca, who is another brother of Atahualpa, as a puppet emperor. But after realizing the intentions of the Spanish, he revolted against them and fled Cuzco and created a Neo-Inca State in the mountains of Vilcabamba. It lasted until 1572 when the Spanish captured his son Tupac Amaru, who became the emperor after Manco Inca, and executed him.

Francisco Pizarro thus exploited the division in the Inca society and eventually took over the Inca Empire and plundered its treasure and destroyed their culture and monuments.

Language

Quechua was the official language of the Inca Empire and was imposed on other cultures in the empire. However, different cultures were allowed to retain their distinct identity, and as a result, many dialects of Quechua emerged.

During colonial rule, the Spanish discouraged the use of Quechua. Many dialects of Quechua are now dead or dying. Quechua is an official language in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, and It is now spoken mainly by the indigenous people of South America.

Quipu – Inca writing system

Even though the Inca did not have a traditional writing system, such as hieroglyphics, they had an ingenious way of recording the numeric and non-numeric data using a device called Quipu, which means “knot” in Quechua.

Quipu is a collection of knotted strings made from cotton strands and camelid (alpaca or llama hair) with one of their ends tied to a principle string. The number of strings in a quipu range from a few to a couple of thousand. Each string contains multiple knots of different colors and sizes.

The Inca used quipus to store business data and their history. The characteristics of knots, such as the color and distance between the knots, were used to encode information.

The Inca considered the task of creating, deciphering, and maintaining quipus a specialized skill, and they allowed only a class of people called Quipucamayocs to perform this task. The members of the ruling class were also taught to read quipus.

Quipucamayocs used quipu like a database of information about the persons, objects, time, work type, taxes, etc. They acted like accountants and performed basic mathematical functions such as add, subtract, multiply and divide. Experts believe that the decimal system was to encode numeric data. In addition, quipu was used for recording the history, especially the history of the Inca Emperor and royalty.

When the Spanish wanted to learn the secret of quipus, the Quipucamayocs refused to divulge them. When the Spanish tortured them to extract the secrets to find gold, they preferred death over divulging their secrets. So, the knowledge to decipher quipus was lost forever.

The Spanish destroyed most of the quipus, but some are still available in museums and academic institutions. Many researchers in the world are engaged in deciphering symbols or the language contained in quipus.

The images below show two samples of quipus on display at the Larco Museum in Lima, Peru.

Quipu – Inca recording device on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru

Quipus on display at Museo Larco, Lima

Textiles

The Inca produced fine textiles using a variety of materials, including cotton, llama, alpaca and vicuña wool. They used beautiful designs and matching colors to produce decorative textiles. To add colors, they extracted dyes from plants, minerals, and insects.

Textiles were prized possessions because the Inca valued textiles more than gold and silver. As the Inca civilization did not have the currency system, they used textiles as barter.

Clothes in the Inca society indicated a person’s status. The nobility and common people wore a different type of clothes. The royalty wore special clothes made of fine vicuña wool.

Engineering

Civil Engineers plaque at the Machu Picchu archaeological site — Civil Engineers plaque

The Incas were excellent engineers. They solved many problems plaguing the Cuzco region and built long-lasting edifices, and they did so by using locally available materials. The stones used in the Inca edifices were precisely cut and finely polished. No mortar was ever used to bind stones.

The plaque shown in the image is on display at the Machu Picchu archaeological site and is a testament to the civil engineering skills of the Incas.

One of the problems the Incas faced was seismic activity in the Cuzco region, which suffered from frequent earthquakes. They devised ingenious ways to interlock and fit them perfectly. The images below show some examples of their construction.

Inca engineers designed many internal locking mechanisms between the stones to bind them perfectly to make the structures earthquake-proof. The images below show some of the techniques the Inca used to fit and lock stones together. These stones were found in Qorikancha.

Internal locking mechanisms of stones found in the Qorikancha Temple complex, Peru

Internal locking mechanisms on stones found at the Qorikancha Temple complex, Peru

Internal locking mechanism between the stones.

Polygonal wall at the fortress of Saksaywaman in Cusco, Peru — A polygonal wall at the fortress of Saksaywaman

The Incas basically used two types of stones :

Regular shaped stones: These are either rectangular or trapezoidal shaped and can be found in Qorikancha and Machu Picchu
Multi-angle stones: The stones are polygonal-shaped and some of them had as many as 12 internal angles. Even with multiple angle stones, the Incas were able to fit them together perfectly. These stones are found Saksaywaman. The Incas learned some of the techniques from other cultures, such as the Kilke, that existed before them.

The Inca buildings have trapezoidal-shaped doors, windows, and niches on the wall. The trapezoidal-shaped construction has the narrow side on the top and wide side at the bottom, which is an ingenious way of making the building stable. Besides, trapezoidal shapes are aesthetically pleasing.

Inca engineers were able to haul massive stones from the quarry and put them in place. Even though they understood the principle of the wheel, they never used it for practical purposes. They did not use beasts of burden either, and yet they could build monuments that used massive stones.

Agriculture

The farmers in the Inca Empire cultivated several major crops, including maize, quinoa, corn, and potatoes. The food in the Inca Empire was abundant because they used innovative farming techniques, such as Terrace Farming, and efficient storage techniques for preserving the food.

The Inca livestock included alpaca and llama herds, which were used for wool, meat, and transportation.

Agricultural Terraces (Andenes)

Because of the mountainous terrain of the Inca Empire, the Inca resorted to terrace farming, which is similar to the farming techniques used in Rice Terraces of Bali.

The Inca created flat surfaces along the mountain slopes by building terraces and cultivated different types of crops depending on the elevation. In order to provide water to the crops, they built sophisticated aqueducts to channel the rainwater through terraces.

The ruins of agricultural terraces can be found all over the Cuzco region, including the citadel of Machu Picchu.

Food Storage

The Inca Empire built a vast network of structures in the mountains for storing the food items, such as grains. These structures, known as qollqas, preserved the food stock for a long time because of the lower temperature in the mountains. The Incas built qollqas on locations high enough for the preservation of food and low enough for the quick access, and they maintained an accurate inventory of the stock using quipus. See Quipu – Inca Writing System.

The image above shows a qollqa located on a mountain near Ollantaytambo.

Inca Religion

The Incas worshiped Viracocha whom they believed was the supreme God and a creator similar to Brahma in Hinduism. He created humans first then the sun, moon, and stars at Lake Titicaca. When he was unhappy with the first set of humans, he sent a flood to wipe the earth clean but saved only three human beings to start all over again. Many cultures and religions, including Christianity, seem to have this notion of the great flood that eliminated the entire population of our planet.

Lake Titicaca was one of the most sacred sites for the Inca and used to be an important pilgrimage site for the emperors, nobility and the citizens of the Inca Empire. There is some similarity between Lake Titicaca and Manasasarovar, a lake in the Himalayas which in Hindu mythology is the abode of Shiva and a sacred site for Hindus.

Besides Viracocha, the Inca worshiped the Sun (Inti), Earth (Mama Pacha), Moon (Mamma Quilla) and many important things they see in nature such as mountains, rivers, lakes, thunder, and rain. They built temples for various gods.

The Inca believed in the afterlife and worshiped their ancestors. They embalmed and mummified the bodies of their ancestors and made offerings to them on important days and during religious ceremonies.

Inca Realms

Just like in Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism, the Inca religion also had the notion of three major realms called pachas:

Hanan Pacha: Symbolized by the condor, this is the upper world or heavens. All the Inca gods live in this realm. People who do good deeds go to this realm after death.
Kay Pacha: Symbolized by the jaguar or puma, this is the middle world in which living beings experience birth, life, and death. This represents the physical world, that is the earth.
Uku Pacha: Symbolized by the snake, this the lower world or the inner world. Demons live in this realm, and the god of death Supay controls this realm and the demons. People who do bad deeds go to this realm after death. This realm roughly translates to hell.

Related Pages
Machu Picchu, Ancient Cultures of Peru, Cusco, Lima, Peru

Machu Picchu

Built at an elevation of 8000 feet on a mountain peak, the citadel at Machu Picchu is one of the seven wonders of the modern world. No visit to Peru is complete without a trip to Machu Picchu, which lies in the Sacred Valley of the Incas in the Cuzco region. Founded by the great Inca emperor Pachacuti around 1450 CE and abandoned in 100 years later, Machu Picchu is one of the few sites the Spanish never discovered and therefore was left intact without the plunder and destruction by the Spanish Conquistadors. It provides a glimpse into the great Inca civilization that prospered around the Andes mountains before the Spanish conquest.

Built at an elevation of 8000 feet on a mountain peak, the citadel at Machu Picchu is one of the seven wonders of the modern world. No visit to Peru is complete without a trip to Machu Picchu, which lies in the Sacred Valley of the Incas in the Cuzco region. Founded by the great Inca emperor Pachacuti around 1450 CE and abandoned in 100 years later, Machu Picchu is one of the few sites the Spanish never discovered and therefore was left intact without the plunder and destruction by the Spanish Conquistadors. It provides a glimpse into the great Inca civilization that prospered around the Andes mountains before the Spanish conquest.

Discovery

Machu Picchu – which means “old peak” in Quechua – was discovered in 1912 by Hiram Bingham, an American explorer from Yale University. He was looking for Vilcabamba, the lost city of the Incas, and believed until his death Machu Picchu was the lost city of the Incas.

Hiram Bingham_plaque — Hiram Bingham plaque

Once discovered, it was excavated and restored to its present form. The site was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983. The site has lately become unstable, and the Government of Peru has been restricting the number of visitors to this site.

Location

Machu Picchu is located about 50 miles north-east of the Inca capital Cuzco. The nearest town is Aguas Calientes, which is in the valley below the Machu Picchu site. Aguas Calientes is also known as Machu Picchu Pueblo.

Statue of Pachacuti at Aguas Calientes welcoming to Machu Picchu

Town of Aguas Calientes in the valley below the Machu Picchu site

Visiting Machu Picchu

The Machu Picchu site is on a mountain peak. You can visit it by foot using the Inca trail or take the bus to the site from Aguas Calientes.

Train

Peru Rail provides several daily train services from Ollantaytambo to Aguas Calientes. The train ride takes about 1 hour 45 minutes. You can then take a bus to reach the site. The bus ride takes about 25 minutes. Ollantaytambo is about 50 miles from the city of Cuzco, so if you are staying in Cuzco, you need to take a bus to Ollantaytambo.

History and Purpose

The Inca emperor Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1438 –71) was the founder of Machu Picchu and the next emperor Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1472 – 93) continued to expand it.

Nobody is sure why Machu Picchu was built and how it was used. There are many theories, but one thing is certain, women were the majority of the population. Some experts believe it was built to safeguard the Inca civilization from the Spanish Conquistadors. If this was the aim, they certainly succeeded in doing that.

The population of Machu Picchu was thought to have succumbed to the diseases, including dreaded smallpox, which the Spanish brought from Europe. The site appeared abandoned after its population perished. However, the natives knew the existence of the site. When Hiram Bingham arrived at the site, he found a few families living there. Hiram Bingham only rediscovered it for the rest of the world.

Structure

Machu Picchu was a self-contained city in which the Inca people lived for about 100 years. This city had agricultural terraces (andenes), underground and overground drainage systems, temples, royal tomb, astronomic observatories, and residential quarters for the nobility and common people.

Many of the structures we see today in Machu Picchu were restored to make them appear the way they looked in their original form. The workmanship of the restored structures is poor compared to the original structures. The difference in workmanship is striking when you look at the structures that are intact.

The structures that still have the original carving and stone masonry are Sun Temple, Principal Temple, and Inti Watana.

A view of the citadel of Machu Picchu

Agricultural terraces and residential quarters in Machu Picchu, Peru

Views of Machu Picchu

Central Plaza

The Central Plaza is equivalent to the central square of a modern city. This is where the residents of the city gathered for celebrations and other occasions. The view from this place is very scenic as it overlooks the Huayna Picchu peak.

The Sacred Plaza is above the Central Plaza, and both the plazas are connected through steps. Below the Central Plaza, there are the ruins of the prisons and residential quarters of the common people.

Central Plaza at Machu Picchu

Residential quarters at Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu central plaza

Sacred Plaza

The Sacred Plaza contains many religious structures, including Principal Temple, Temple with Three Windows, and the Inti Watana stone placed on a pyramid-like structure. This is where important religious ceremonies were held.

Temples

Temples were an important part of Inca life. Even though Sun was the main god, the Inca built temples for many other gods as well.

Principal Temple

Principal Temple is located on the Sacred Plaza. It has three walls, two lateral and one rear and a total of trapezoidal 17 niches on these walls. Like in other Inca temples, the niches were used to keep the haucas (sacred objects). Above the niches of the rear wall, there are six stone pegs which might have used to hang decoration during festivities.

It is believed that the Inca supreme god Viracocha was worshiped in this temple. As in the case of other Inca temples, Principal Temple likely housed royal mummies because the Inca considered them as deities and worshiped them as well.

Principal temple Machu Picchu — Machu Picchu: Principal temple

The image above shows the ruins of Principal Temple. Notice the defect on the right side of the rear wall. Experts believe that this defect was caused by settling of the earth that occurred as a result of earthquakes that struck the site after it was built.

Temple of the Three Windows

The three windows in the temple represent the three realms of the Inca religion: Hannan Pacha (upper world or heavens), Kaya Pacha (middle world or earth) and Uku Pacha (underworld or hell).

Sun Temple

Built on a natural rock, the Sun Temple is a semi-circular tower with the original Inca stone masonry. Even though there is some resemblance to the Sun Temple at Qorikancha in Cuzco, the one in Machu Picchu is a lot smaller. Just like in the Qorikancha Temple, there are trapezoidal windows and niches in the Machu Picchu temple.

Under one of the windows of this temple, there is a stone on which the sun rays fall, and the Inca measured the movement of the Sun by tracking the sun rays on the rock. Some experts believe that this rock served as a sacrificial altar on which sacrifices were made during the summer and winter equinoxes and many important religious ceremonies.

Condor Temple

The Andean condor is revered by the indigenous cultures of South America. It played an important role in the Inca culture and religion as it symbolizes the upper world realm, Hanan Pacha.

The Condor Temple was built on a natural rock that is believed to represent the wing of a condor. A beautifully carved condor beak lies in front of this structure. The carved condor beak and the natural rock behind it make up the Condor Temple.

Condor Temple in Machu Picchu, Peru

Carving of condor beak in front of the Condor Temple in Machu Picchu, Peru

The Condor Temple

Inti Watana (Intihuatana)

The Inti Watana stone is one of the enigmatic structures in Machu Picchu. Inti Watana (Intihuatana) in Quechua means “hitching post for the sun.”

While nobody is sure of its actual use, many experts believe that it was used as an astronomic clock or a calendar. It casts the longest shadow on the summer solstice (June 21) and shortest shadow on the winter solstice (December 21).

Many Inca sacred sites had Inti Watana stones and the Inca people considered them as sacred objects. According to a legend, people used to touch their foreheads to the stone and experience spiritual vision. The Spanish considered this as the pagan worship and systematically destroyed them. The Inti Watana stone at Machu Picchu was the only one that was found intact.

Sacred Inti Watana stone in Machu Picchu — Sacred Inti Watana stone

Royal Tomb

The Inca royal tomb is located next to the Sun Temple and contains the ceremonial niches and three steps representing the three realms of the Inca religion: underworld (snake), the middle world (jaguar) and the upper world (condor).

As much as 100 skeletal remains were discovered inside the royal tomb and a vast majority of them belonged to women leading experts to believe that the majority of the Machu Picchu residents were women.

The royal tomb at Machu Picchu — The royal tomb

Astronomic Mirrors

Below the Sun Temple, there are two round structures filled with water. It was believed that the Inca used these for observing the stars. Just like the Mayans, the Incas were keen observers of the sky. They filled them with water and observed the images of the stars in the water.

Sacred Rock

Nobody is certain how the Sacred Rock was used by the Inca. Because it resembles the shape of a guinea pig, some experts believe it represents the guinea pig while others believe it represents the mountains behind it because its shape matches the profile of those mountains.

Animals

Llamas and alpacas freely roam around the Machu Picchu site.

Alpacas in Machu Picchu

Llamas grazing in Machu Picchu, Peru

Llamas and Alpacas freely roaming in Machu Picchu

Huayna Picchu

When you are in the Machu Picchu site, where ever you go you feel the presence of this beautiful and magnificent peek next to it.

Huayna Picchu is taller than Machu Picchu and just like Machu Picchu, it has many structures, including a temple for the moon goddess, residential quarters, and agricultural terraces.

There is a trail that goes from Machu Picchu to Huayna Picchu near the Sacred Rock.

Contact

← Back

Thank you for your response. ✨

Cusco

Located in the Andes mountain range, the Cuzco region of Peru is one of the most spectacular places on our planet. The city of Cuzco is the capital of the Cuzco region and lies at an elevation of 11,200 ft. The Cuzco region also includes the scenic Urubamba Valley, which is known as the Sacred Valley of the Incas.

Location

Cuzco City

The sacred city of Cuzco used to be the capital of the Inca Empire. The Kilke people inhabited the Cuzco region from 900 CE and until Incas arrived in the 13th century. It remained the capital of the Incas until the Spanish defeated the last Inca ruler in 1532 CE.

City of Cusco – Main square

A church in Plaza de Armas in Cuzco, Peru

Cusco City

Qorikancha – Inca Temple of Sun God

Qorikancha, which means a golden compound in Quechua, was a magnificent Inca temple dedicated to the Sun God Inti. It was rebuilt by Pachacuti, a powerful Inca emperor who was also known for rebuilding the city of Cuzco. The walls of the temple were made of finely polished, precisely cut and perfectly fitting stones and were covered with sheets of gold. Qorikancha was also the home for the Inca royal mummies, some of which were believed to be the mummies of former Sapa Incas. In the niches, there were golden statues of huacas (sacred objects)and emeralds.

When the Spanish saw Qorikancha, they were awestruck by its beauty and opulence, and yet they plundered the treasure and destroyed the royal mummies. Because the Qorikancha structure being very strong, they were unable to destroy it entirely. They left remaining part of the temple as is and built the Convent of Santo Domingo on top of the ruins.

Just like the Romans, the Incas were excellent engineers. Inca structures with precise stone masonry and fine workmanship were far more superior than the colonial structures. When earthquakes struck the Cuzco region, most of the Spanish buildings collapsed whereas the Inca structures remained intact.

The Spaniards used the stones from Qorikancha as foundations for the cathedral and the Convent of Santo Domingo.

Entrance to Qorikancha - the Temple of Sun God

Entrance to Qorikancha – Temple of Sun God

Convent of Santo Domingo with the Qorikancha ruins inside located in Cuzco, Peru

Convent of Santo Domingo in Cuzco, Peru

The Convent of Santo Domingo with Qorikancha ruins inside

Because the ruins of Qorikancha are inside the Convent of Santo Domingo, you need to enter through the convent to visit them.

A trapezoidal door belonging to the Qorikancha temple in Cuzco, Peru

Qorikancha trapezoidal door

Ruins of the Qorikancha Temple

A hallway in the Qorikancha ruins in Cuzco, Peru

Qorikancha hallway

Ruins of Qorikancha

The doors, windows, and niches in the interior walls of Inca structures are of trapezoidal in shape, which not only helps the stability of the building but also improves the aesthetics.

Spanish and Inca structures side by side

The Spanish donated the area around Qorikancha to Dominicans, who built the Convent of Santo Domingo on top of Qorikancha. You can now see the Spanish colonial structures with the Inca structures side-by-side.

Colonial Mural Painting

During the Spanish colonial period, the interior sides of Inca structures were covered with plaster and decorated with mural painting. The mural painting shown below was most likely drawn in the 17th century and part of the decoration of the Chapter House of Santo Domingo Priory. It was restored in May 2005.

Colonial mural painting found in the Qorikancha Temple complex in Cusco, Peru

Saksaywaman

This amazing fortress-like complex was originally built by the Kilke people around 1100 CE. When the Inca conquered the Kilke, they expanded the complex further. After the Spanish conquered the Inca, they destroyed as much as they can and reused the stones for other structures such as churches.

Because of its structure and the style, historians widely believe Saksaywaman was a fortress and not a temple. Some of the stones used in the structure were so massive they weighed between 90 to 120 tons. Stones were of different sizes and shapes but were perfectly fused together like a Jigsaw puzzle. It is not fully understood how this structure was constructed by the people who did not have sophisticated metal tools.

Saksaywaman near Cuzco, Peru

Polygonal Walls of Saksaywaman

Urubamba Valley

The Urubamba Valley runs along the Urubamba River and is called the sacred valley of the Incas. Many mountain peaks lie on both sides of this scenic valley and some of them as high as 18,000 feet. The Inca cultivated maize in the Urubamba Valley and used it to brew Chicha, a drink that the Incas used in their festivals and celebrations.

Urubamba – Sacred Valley of the Incas

Veronoica peak as seen from Chinchero, Cusco

Urubamba River near Machu Picchu

Ollantaytambo

Located in the Sacred Valley of the Incas, Ollantaytambo is where the famous Battle of Ollantaytambo took place. The Inca resistance leader and the Inca Emperor Manco Inca – who happened to be another brother of Atahualpa (the last independent Inca Emperor) – defeated the Conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro’s half-brother Hernando Pizarro. When Hernando Pizarro arrived at the fortress (see image below) with his cavalry and the native soldiers, Manco Inca flooded the plain below the fortress forcing Hernando’s cavalry to retreat. The Spanish returned with greater force and eventually took over Ollantaytambo and Manco Inca retreated to the forests.

The image above shows the fortress of Manco Inca where he defeated the Spanish Conquistadors. The images below show the area around the city of Ollantaytambo.

Ollataytambo Police Station

Mountains near Ollantaytambo

Rural Ollantaytambo

Strange vegetation on top of a house

Native Tradition

A house with a cross and two bulls on the rooftop at Ollantaytambo

The rooftops of some houses in the Cuzco region have ceramic statues of two bulls and a cross. The native people in this region believe that the statues of the bull on the rooftop bring wealth and happiness. In addition, they consider the bull a symbol of fertility.

The tradition of placing the statues of the bulls on the rooftop predates the Spanish rule. The native people kept this tradition even after they became Catholic, but inserted a cross in between the statues of the bulls.

The image shows the statues of two bulls and a cross placed on the rooftop of a traditional house in Ollantaytambo near Cuzco.

Inca Village

Time seems to have stopped in a village near Ollantaytambo. It has houses, buildings and the drainage channels from Inca times. The residents of this village mostly live their lives like people used to live in Inca times.

The images below show the village streets and people.

An indigenous woman carrying a child in an Inca village near Ollantaytambo

An Inca village near Ollantaytambo in the Cuzco region of Peru

The imges below show the interior views of a house actively used by an indeigenous family. As you can see from the image, there are cups, bowls, and stone tools used for cooking and other household functions. There are also dolls and ceramic figures of bulls and a shaman.

Guinea pigs are native to the Andean region and were domesticated long before the Spanish arrived. The guinea pig meat is a delicacy, and the Inca families bread guinea pigs for their own consumption.

Objects inside an Inca house

Guinea pigs inside an Inca house

Peruvian Andes Mountains

The Andes Mountain range passes through the Cuzco region. The name Andes was derived from the Quechua word anti which means east.

In the Cuzco region, two popular peaks on the Andes mountain range are Veronica and Salcantay. The Veronica peak is one of the most visible peaks around the Cuzco region. You can view the Veronica peak during the bus journey from Cuzco to Ollantaytambo and train journey to Aguas Calientes from Ollantaytambo.

Salcantay is located 50 miles northwest of Cuzco and the peak is visible from the Inca trail.

Andes mountain peak near Chinchero

Veronoica peak as seen from Chinchero, Cusco

A view of Veronica peak captured at Chinchero, Cusco

Veronica peak as seen from the Vistadome train

Peruvian Andes – An aerial view

Town of Aguas Calientes in the valley below the Machu Picchu site

Andes mountains along the Urubamba river

Ephesus

Situated on the western coast of Asia Minor (currently in Turkey), Ephesus is an ancient city inhabited and controlled by Greeks, Romans, and early Christians over a period of 2000 years. Most people know Ephesus from its mention in the Bible, especially in St. Paul’s letter to the Ephesians, but Ephesus was famous well before that. Because of its wealth and the strategic position in the Aegean Sea, it was a coveted city by the major powers of the Mediterranean, including Greeks, Persians, and Romans, and they often fought to take control of the city.

At its peak during Roman times, Ephesus had a population of more than 200,000 people. It is huge compared to the cities of ancient times. Ephesus was an important port city linked to many major ports in the Mediterranean. During Roman times, it exported spices from Asia Minor and Central Asia, and it imported rice, silk, and finished goods, including glass products and textiles from major Roman ports and the port of Alexandria, Egypt.

A look at the ruins in Ephesus suggests that ancient structures were a mix of Greek and Roman architecture and construction. When the Romans conquered Ephesus, they used Greek columns and other materials to build their temples and buildings. The Christians continued this trend by building churches using materials from the Roman and Greek buildings.

Location

History

Quoting Hittite sources, some scholars suggest that Ephesus was the capital of Arzawa, an independent kingdom in Asia Minor, and used to be called Apasa, which eventually became Ephesus.

According to a legend, Ephesus was founded by Amazons, a famed tribe of women warriors. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Bronze Age people lived in this area. The migration from Greece started in 1200 BCE and eventually became a Greek city.

Around the 7th century BCE, Ephesus started emerging as a prominent city under the rule of Lydian kings. It became prosperous and a great center of learning in which women enjoyed equal rights as men. The Temple of Artemis, one of the seven ancient wonders of the world, was built during this period by a Lydian king called Croesus. Later, Persians invaded Ephesus and defeated Lydians and took control of the city until Alexander the Great retook it from the Persians in 334 BCE.

As the Greek influence faded, the Roman Empire took control of this city and became an important center of trade and commerce, while still maintaining its superiority in learning and intellectual pursuits. The Celsus Library is a testament to its leading role in learning during that era.

As Christianity started spreading, early Christians visited Ephesus in the first century in an effort to convert the inhabitants. St. Paul said to have preached in the amphitheater. St. John and Virgin Marry believed to have lived in this city and were buried there. St. Paul wrote the Book of Ephesians, which is an Epistle, addressing the Christians of Ephesus.

The rise of Christianity sealed the fate of the city. As Christianity took root in the Roman Empire, worshiping of pagan gods was forbidden resulting in the closure of temples, which lead to their eventual destruction. The magnificent Temple of Artemis was believed to have been destroyed by a Christian mob. Women, who enjoyed equal rights and were prominent citizens until then, were relegated to insignificant roles. Ephesus never regained its former glory or prominence.

The final death knell came when the harbor was pushed slowly a few miles away from the city due to the gathering silt from the river. Eventually, Ephesus lost access to the Aegean Sea and stopped being a port resulting in a huge loss of population. In the 14 century, the Ottoman Empire took control of Ephesus. It was completely abandoned in the 15th century.

Monuments Near State Agora

Agora in Greek means meeting place, and it is similar to a town square or plaza of our times. As you enter Ephesus, you will see the ruins of several monuments in and around State Agora. These include Baths of Varius, Bouleterion (Odeon) and Prytaneion.

Baths of Varius

The Baths of Varius is located at the main entrance of Ephesus because when people entered the city, they wanted to freshen up and rest. It is a typical Roman bath with hot and cold rooms. This is one of the four baths that existed in Ephesus.

Bouleterion (Odeon)

In a typical Greek city-state, a Bouleterion was where the members of the Senate got together to discuss the matters of the state.

Built in the shape of a theater, the Bouleterion was also used as a concert hall where music performances and contests were held.

Prytaneion

A Prytaneion is an assembly of buildings and structures that were used to house the executive branch of the Greek Government. It is current equivalent of a city hall. The officials who administered the city met in these buildings. These buildings were typically constructed near the Agora. Prytaneion contained a hearth to hold the perpetual fire, which is a symbol of Goddess Hastia.

Domitian Square

The Domitian Square had a temple dedicated to the Roman Emperor Domitian (81-96 CE). Known to be a tyrant, Emperor Domitian was the one who banished Apostle St. John to the island of Patmos. After he was assassinated by one of his servants, this temple was rededicated to his father, Emperor Vespasian.

A beautifully carved sculpture of Nike, the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, is located at the Domitian Square. The carving portrays her as if she is flying with wings and multi-folded dress with a “swoosh.” The inspiration for the logo of Nike, the sportswear company, seems to have come from the folds of her dress.

Carving of Goddess Nike in Ephesus, Turkey

Asclepeion

In ancient times, Ephesus was well-known for its medical school and expertise in medicine. The image below shows the stone found in the ruins of Asclepeion, a healing temple dedicated to the Greek god of medicine Asclepius. It carved with a snake coiled around a staff known as the Rod of Asclepius. A similar symbol with two snakes coiled around a staff known as the caduceus is widely-used in modern times as the universal symbol to represent medicine and healthcare.

Ephesus is the birthplace of Soranus, a Greek physician who is famous for his work on gynecology and obstetrics. He lived in the 2nd century and practiced in Alexandria and Rome. Another Greek physician Rufus (80 -150 CE) practiced in Ephesus and wrote treatises on anatomy, pathology and, dietetics.

Memmius Monument

Built between 50 and 30 BCE, this monument was dedicated to Caius Memmius. He was the grandson of Sulla, a Roman dictator who sacked Ephesus in 84 CE.

Fountain of Pollio

In ancient times, Ephesus had one of the best aqueducts in the world. Built in 97 CE, the Pollio Fountain was dedicated to C. Sextilius Pollio, the builder of one of the aqueducts.

The Pollio Fountain was a two-story structure with an imposing arch that was visible from many parts of the city. The fountain provided free water to the citizens and visitors.

Curetes Street

Lined with rows of shops, inns, religious and civic buildings, the Curetes Street, which is 2010 meter long, was Ephesus’ main boulevard. Both sides of the street had sidewalks with the mosaic pavement. Horses, chariots, and carts used this street, and just like in modern times, a sewer channel ran under the street.

Trajan Fountain (The Nympheum)

As the name suggests, this fountain was dedicated to the Emperor Trajan (97-117 CE) and situated on the right side of the Curetes Street.

Scholastikia Baths

Named after Christiane Scholastikia, who restored them in 400 CE, the Scholastikia Baths were typical Roman baths consisting of hot and cold water rooms.

The ruins of these baths are famous for their toilets or latrines. Built along the walls of this structure are the rows of seats made of marble. The flushing system ran the used water from baths through the canals under the seats. This structure also had a pool at the center.

Hadrian Temple

The Hadrian Temple was built to honor Emperor Hadrian (117 – 138), who visited Ephesus in 128 CE. At the center of the arch that is in the front of the temple is the carving of the head of Tyche, the goddess of fortune. Above the door at the back of the temple is the carving of Medusa standing with acanthus leaves. On both sides of this door, the friezes portray the story of the foundation of Ephesus.

Hadrian Temple in Ephesus, Turkey

A frieze in the Hadrian Temple in Ephesus, Turkey

Hadrian Temple

Roman Terrace Houses

Owned by rich Romans, the terrace houses are on a hill in front of the Hadrian Temple. The restoration of these houses is currently underway. The three terraces that are in the restored area housed six residential units.

Even though the facades of the houses were ordinary compared to the other buildings in Ephesus, the interior decoration was exquisite. The walls were covered with paintings and frescoes and floors paved with mosaic. The images below show the interiors of the Roman Terrace Houses.

A Roman Terrace House in Ephesus, Turkey

Frescoes in a Roman Terrace House in Ephesus, Turkey

Mosaic on the floor of a Roman Terrace House in Ephesus, Turkey

Arch in a Roman Terrace House in Ephesus, Turkey

Roman Terrace Houses

The terrace houses had excellent heating systems and plumbing. By using the same system as in the Roman baths, these houses were provided with hot and cold water.

Celsus Library

This magnificent building is located at the end of Curetes Street. To its left is the Mazeus Gate, one of the entrances to the Commercial Agora.

The Celsus Library building was also the mausoleum of Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, who was the Roman Proconsul of the Asian province of Rome between 105 and 107 CE. He was buried in a crypt under the library. The building was commissioned by his son Gaius in 114 CE and completed in 117 CE.

Celsus was a Greek who rose to become a Roman Senator and in the process accumulated a lot of wealth, which was used his to build this library. At its peak, the Celsus Library was home to 12,000 scrolls and manuscripts and was one of the biggest libraries of ancient times.

In 262 CE, an earthquake destroyed the building except for the facade. Many centuries later (most likely in the 10th century), another earthquake destroyed the facade.

What we see now is the two-story facade restored in the 1970s. The restoration made use of the fragments of the original structure found in the site as well as the copies of the related artifacts available in various museums.

Celsus Library in Ephesus, Turkey

Celsus Library

Menorah

The carving of a menorah was found on the steps of the Celsus Library. When St Paul visited Ephesus in 53 CE, he found a sizable Jewish community there. However, no ruins of a synagogue have even been found in Ephesus.

Commercial Agora

The Commercial Agora Ephesus was the marketplace where the residents and visitors came to buy things. The shape of the Commercial Agora was square and lined up with shops along each side. It had existed since the third century BCE and had the following three gates:

Gate of Mazeus Mithridates next to the Celsus Library
Front of Amphitheater
Arcadian street gate from the harbor side

Only the gate from the Celsus Library side has been restored. It was built by two freed slaves Mazeus and Mithridate and was dedicated to Emperor Augustus whom they served.

Mazeus Gate – One of the entrances to the Commercial Agora

Commercial Agora in Ephesus, Turkey

Commercial Agora

Great Theater

The Great Theater of Ephesus was one of the biggest structures in Ephesus. The Greeks constructed the original theater in the 3rd century CE. The Romans later expanded and remodeled it to suit their amphitheater style of construction.

The structure we see today has the capacity of 25,000 people. In ancient times, it was used for political and religious gatherings, and sometimes for sports, such as gladiator fights. St. Paul believed to have preached in this theater. Recently, this was the location for many musical concerts. Such events are not allowed anymore for fear of causing damage to the structure.

Great Theater of Ephesus

Great Theater

Arcadiane Way

Located in front of the Amphitheater, the Arcadiane Street leads the way to the harbor. It was built to honor Eastern Emperor Arcadius (395-408 CE), who restored it. The Arcadiane Street is also known as the Harbor Street because it leads to the Ephesus Harbor. The original Arcadiane Street was built sometime in the 1st century CE. After an earthquake destroyed it in 267 CE, it was rebuilt again.

The street is about 2000 feet long and 40 feet wide and was paved with marble slabs. The visitors who arrived by the harbor entered Ephesus through this street. It was an impressive sight with beautifully decorated shops and colonnades lined on both sides of the street.

Author Notes

If you are interested in Greek, Roman or Christian history, Ephesus is the place to visit. Even if you are not, visiting this ancient city that contains ruins of magnificent buildings of the ancient world will leave you a lasting impression. The ruins of Ephesus provide a glimpse of how life was like in ancient times. The archaeological site at Ephesus is maintained well, and the excavation is still going on. New things are still being discovered.

Contact

← Back

Thank you for your response. ✨

Prambanan

A magnificent temple complex dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses

Known for its grandeur and magnificent architecture, Prambanan is a massive Hindu temple complex (also known as Rara Jonggrang complex) situated 11 miles northeast of Yogyakarta in Indonesia. Built around 900 CE by the rulers of the Sanjaya dynasty who ruled the Mataram Kingdom of Java, this complex contains multiple temples dedicated to the gods, goddesses, and rishis (sages) of Hindu mythology.

According to an inscription found in Java, King Rakai Pikatan started the construction around 850 CE with a small set of temples. His successors, especially Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu, later built most of the temples that we now see in this complex. Many kings who came after them also made minor contributions. Eventually, there were a total of 224 temples in the complex. Not all of them have been restored.

The six main temples in this complex are dedicated to the Hindu Trimurti (Trinity) Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma and their respective vahanas (vehicles) Nandi, Garuda and Angsa (Hamsa or Swan). The other temples include temples for the Goddess Saraswati and Rishi Agastya.

Borobudur, which is the other world-famous site in the Yogyakarta area, is located about 50 miles from Prambanan and was built about 50 years before Prambanan. The rulers of the Sanjaya dynasty, who were Shaivaits (followers of Shiva), were competing with the Buddhist Shylendra dynasty, the builder of Borobudur. Both the Prambanan and Borobudur temples were declared world heritage sites by UNESCO.

Each temple in the Prambanan complex has a garbhagriha (inner sanctum) where the main statue of the temple is housed. It is on an elevated platform and visitors approach it through a staircase. Enclosing the inner sanctum is a square-shaped corridor with balustrades carved with bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Prambanan temple complex

Shiva Temple

This temple is dedicated to Shiva the destroyer, one of the Hindu Trinity. Because the rulers who commissioned the Prambanan temples were worshipers of Shiva, the Shiva Temple became the main temple of the complex.

The Dutch restored the temple the first time in the early 1900s. It is 47 meters high and the tallest temple in the complex.

The inner sanctum has four cellas (chambers), each of which faces a cardinal direction and houses a statue. The statue of Shiva is in the east-facing cella. The other three statues are, Goddess Durga as Mahisasuramardini is the north-facing cella, Shiva’s son Ganesha in the west-facing cella and Agastya in the south-facing cella.

At the entrance, it also houses the statues of Mahakala and Nandishwara considered as the guardians. The bas-reliefs in this temple depict stories from Ramayana, one of the great Hindu epics.

Check the Prambanan Bas-Reliefs page for a detailed explanation of some of the interesting bas-reliefs in Prambanan.

East facing chamber – Shiva

Statue of Shiva standing inside the Shiva Temple in Prambanan — Shiva

Unlike a typical Shiva temple in India, there is no Shiva Linga in this temple. Instead, the statue of Shiva stands on top of a square platform that has a small canal on the right. The square platform represents yoni (symbolizes the womb of Shiva’s wife). Shiva stands on a round pedestal carved with petals of the lotus flower on the outside. The lotus pedestal is mounted within the square space of the yoni.

Some experts believe that the statue of Shiva resembles King Balitung Maha Sambu. It was likely built after his death to show that he was the reincarnation of Shiva.

Here are some of the depictions of Shiva in Southeast Asia and India:

Shiva Tandava Nritya – Shiva’s cosmic dance – on a facade of the gopura in the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia
Bhairava – An Incarnation of Shiva on the outer wall of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple Karnataka, India
Shiva with his vehicle Nandi – Sculpture installed in a niche in the Aihole Durga Temple, Karnataka, India

North facing chamber – Durga as Mahishasuramardini

Statue of Siva's wife Durga the Mahishasuramardini — Durga as Mahishasuramardini

The narrative statue shown in the image depicts Goddess Durga slaying Mahishasura, an evil demon who took the form of a buffalo. This feat was responsible for her title, Mahishasuramardini, which is a combination of three Sanskrit words: mahisha (buffalo), asura (demon), and mardini (slayer). The slaying of Mahishasura is all about the triumph of good over evil and is based on an episode narrated in Devi Mahatmya, a part of Markandeya Purana. Created by combining energies from Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma, and other gods, Durga is a Hindu goddess of war who fights evil forces. She has ten arms, each holding different weapons/objects given to her by various gods.

Goddess Durga is widely worshiped in India and Southeast Asia. Check the other Durga as Mahishasuramardini pages:
– Durga as Mahishasuramardini (Slayer of Mahishasura) on the outer wall of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple
– Durga as Mahishasuramardini on the outer wall of the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu in Karnataka, India
– Durga as Mahishasuramardini (Slayer of Mahishasura) installed in a devakoshta of the Durga Temple in Aihole, Karnataka, India

West facing chamber – Ganesha

Statue of Ganesha in the Shiva Temple — Ganesha

The statue of Ganesha, one of the sons of Shiva, is in the west-facing chamber. With the elephant head and human body, Ganesha is a unique Hindu god widely worshiped in India and Southeast Asia.

South facing chamber – Agastya

Statue of Agastya in the Shiva Temple — Agastya

The statue of Agastya, one of the most revered rishis (sages) in Hinduism, stands in the south-facing chamber of the inner sanctum of the Shiva Temple. Agastya is portrayed as a stocky man with a long beard. On his left hand, he holds a kamandala, a water pot typically held by ascetics in Hinduism. On his right hand, which is folded across his chest, he holds the beads of a japamala (prayer beads). As with many other statues in Prambanan, the Agastya statue stands on a round pedestal carved on the outside with the petals of the lotus flower. An upright trishula (trident) stands on the right side of the statue.

Agastya is revered and worshiped in South India. Check these pages: Legend of Badami and Agastya Lake. His name appears in all the four Vedas, many Puranas, and Ramayana and Mahabharata. He also authored some hymns in Rigveda, one of the four Vedas.

Brahma Temple

Statue of Brahma with four heads — Brahma

Even though Brahma is the creator and one of the Hindu Trinities in Hindu mythology, he is not worshiped like Shiva and Vishnu. Therefore, there are very few temples dedicated to him in the Indian Subcontinent as well as in Southeast Asia. The Brahma Temple in Prambanan is one of the prominent temples among them. The other well-known Brahma Temple is in Pushkar, Rajasthan, India. The Belur Chennakeshava Temple in Karnataka, India, has a beautiful relief depicting Brahma.

There are several legends as to why Brahma is not worshiped. According to one legend, his consort Savitri, who was angered by Brahma’s extreme lust, cursed him not to be worshiped anywhere in the world except in Pushkar. In another legend, Shiva cursed Brahma because he lied to him and Vishnu about their creation.

The statue of Brahma as shown in the image stands in the inner chamber of this temple. The four faces symbolize the four cardinal directions and four Vedas.

Brahma had five heads in the beginning with the fifth one gazing upwards. According to one legend, Shiva cut off the fifth head when he realized Brahma became infatuated with a female goddess he created.

Vishnu Temple

This temple is dedicated to Vishnu the protector. The bas-reliefs in this temple depict stories from Krishnayana. Note that Krishna is the eighth avatar of Vishnu. Check the Dashavatara page for a list and description of the ten standard avatars of Vishnu.

As you cas see from the image, Vishnu has four arms, two of which are raised up and the other two are down. This is how Vishnu is typically portrayed in Hindu temples in India and Southeast Asia. Here are his signature objects carried by his four hands:

Shanka : Upper left hand – It is a conch shell named Panchajanya that emerged as a by-product during the Samudra Manthana. It was responsible for the creation of the panchabhootas (five elements), which are: water, fire, earth, and sky. When blown, it produces a giant primeval sound.
Sudarshana Chakra: Upper right hand – It is a disc-like weapon with serrated edges. When fired, it spins and moves with a rapid force to destroy evil and then returns to Vishnu.
Padma: Lower left hand – It is a sacred lotus flower that represents beauty, purity, and evolution
Gadaa: Lower right hand – It is a mace named Kaumodaki and represents strength

The order in which Vishnu holds his objects vary. With four hands, there are a total of 24 combinations, and sometimes a combination indicates a particular form of Vishnu.

Just like many other statues in Prambanan, Vishnu is standing on a lotus flower pedestal mounted on a square-shaped yoni.

Wahana temples

Each of the Trimurti temples has a wahana temple in front of them.

Nandi Temple

The temple for Shiva’s vehicle Nandi is in front of the Shiva Temple. In the inner chamber of this temple, the statue of Nandi is in the middle, and the statues of Dewa Surya (Sun God) and Dewa Chandra (Moon God) are on the left and right sides of Nandi respectively. These three statues symbolize the constant watch of Shiva by his vehicle Nandi and the celestial objects, Sun and Moon.

Statue of Nandi the Bull in the inner chamber of the Nandi Temple at Prambanan in Yogyakarta, Indonesia — Dewa Surya

Statues inside the Nandi Temple

Angsa Temple

Angsa (Hamsa) is Brahma’s vehicle and represented as a sacred swan. There is no main statue in this temple. It is not known whether the statue existed in the original building.

Garuda Temple

Garuda is Vishnu’s vehicle and is an eagle. Just like the Angsa Temple, there is no main statue in this temple.

Location

History

Roman Period

Decline

Pythian Games

Sanctuary of Apollo

Sacred Way

Roman Agora

Temple of Apollo

Oracle of Delphi

Architecture

Omphalos

Dancers of Delphi

Halos

Altar of Chiots

Polygonal Wall

Stoa of the Athenians

Kings of Argos Monument

Silver Bull

Naxian Sphinx

Pillar of King Prusias II of Bithynia

Treasuries

Treasury of the Athenians

Treasury of the Siphnians

Votive Offerings

Twins of Argos

Charioteer of Delphi

Theater

Share this:

Like this:

A Modern City with a Glorious Past

Location

Modern Athens

Syntagma Square

Parliament Building

Tomb of the Unknown Soldier

National Gardens

Athens Olympics Games

Panathenaic Stadium

Views of the City

Ancient Athens

Acropolis

Parthenon

Destruction

Odeon of Herodes Atticus

Erechtheion

Porch of the Caryatids

Theatre of Dionysus

Arch of Hadrian (Hadrian’s Gate)

Temple of Olympian Zeus

Ancient Agora

Temple of Hephaestus (Hēphaistos)

Byzantine Period

Church of the Holy Apostles

Contact

Thank you for your response. ✨

Share this:

Like this:

Knossos

Discovery and Excavation

Palace at Knossos

Horns of Consecration

Hall with Columns and Frescoes

Throne Room

King’s Megaron

Queen’s Megaron

Bastion of the Bull

Theater Area

Arts

Frescoes

Prince of the Lilies Fresco

Bull Leaping Fresco

Pottery

Pithoi Jars

Contact

Thank you for your response. ✨

Share this:

Like this:

Mykonos

Santorini