Located on Cerro del Sol (Sun Hill), a hill adjoining the Alhambra, the Generalife is a complex consisting of beautiful gardens, orchards, and a palace used by the Nasrid kings as a leisure residence, especially during summer. Derived from the Arabic word Jannat al-‘Arīf, Generalife means an architect’s garden. Inspired by the Persian gardens of the medieval period, Muhammed II (1273 – 1302), the second king of the Nasrid dynasty, built the Generalife complex as his summer residence. Muhammed III (1302 – 1309), the second king, and Ismail I (1314- 1325), the fourth king, extended and improved the palaces and gardens.
The Generalife provides a panoramic view of the Alhambra and Granada area. Although the palaces in Generalife are not as ornate as the Nasrid Palaces of the Alhambra, they still retain the charm of Moorish art. The courtyards have pools with fountains and water canals.
The palaces and gardens underwent significant restorations in the 20th century. The walkways, which were built as part of these restorations, are paved with beautiful mosaics created with black and white pebbles. The black ones are from the River Genil, and the white ones are from the River Darro. It became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 along with the Alhambra and Albaicín district.
Visiting the Generalife
As mentioned before, the Generalife complex is on a hill next to the Alhambra, and separating them is a ravine, which has a bridge that provides access to the Generalife. It takes about an hour to visit the gardens and courtyards of the Generalife. You can combine the Alhambra visit with the Generalife because it is at a walkable distance.
There is a path that leads to the Generalife from the Alhambra. Once you visit the Nasrid Palaces, you come out via the Gardens of Partal, which has signs directing to the Paseo de las Torres (Tower’s walk). Follow these signs, and as you walk, you will see several Nasrid era towers. You then cross the bridge over the ravine and reach the Auditorium at the Generalife. A walkway leads to the lower gardens area, and you start the Generalife visit there.
At the center of the image is a pebbled walkway that leads to the Generalife Palace and the upper gardens. The Generalife complex has many similar walkways paved with beautiful mosaics created with black and white pebbles. The black ones are from the River Genil, and the white ones are from the River Darro. The walkways are a 20th-century creation built as part of the restoration of the Generalife.
The area on the right side of the walkway is an arable land used by
the Nasrids to grow vegetables and fruits. It serves the same purpose
even today. As you can see, the agricultural terrace on the right has
orchards and vegetable patches.
The area on the left side is used for decorative purposes and has beautifully-trimmed cypress trees. It is a delightful experience to walk under the arches of the cypress trees. See the image below. Although these gardens make a great impression with visitors, they are also a modern creation built as part of the renovation of the Generalife, and nobody is sure how they looked in the Nasrid era.
Cypress tree archesAn octagonal basin
Generalife Palace
The walkway from the lower gardens leads to the Generalife Palace, which has two important courts, which are:
Patio de la Acequia (Court of the Irrigation Channel
Patio de la Sultana (Sultana’s Court or Courtyard of the Cypress).
Patio de la Acequia – Court of the Irrigation Canal
The Patio de la Acequia is a rectangular court with pavilions on all four sides. The image below is captured from the northern pavilion. On the far end of the image is the southern pavilion with two floors. The pavilion on the right (i.e., west side) is ornate and provides a beautiful view of the Generalife gardens and the Alhambra.
Patio de la Acequia (Court of the Irrigation Canal)
As the name suggests, the court has an irrigation canal, which runs
through its center. Built in the Nasrid period, it provided water for
the exotic plants in the court. On its sides are the narrow terraces
with water sprouts spurting water into the canal, creating a beautiful
display of semi oval-shaped water jets crossing each other.
The hedges of myrtle bushes run along the outer edges of the terraces. The beds used for cultivating flower plants, bushes, and fruit trees are on both sides of the canal. The Nasrids imported some of these plants, including a variety of rose bushes and jasmine creepers, from different parts of the world, choosing them for the colorfulness and fragrance of their flowers. The plants with their colorful flowers and a pleasant aroma created a delightful atmosphere in the court.
A chamber on the west-side pavilion A ceiling of the west-side pavilion
The image on the left shows highly ornate pavilion with large arched windows surrounded by Islamic calligraphy. As you can see, they provide a beautiful view of the gardens.
The image on the right shows the sunken wooden ceiling of a pavilion on the west side of the Patio de la Acequia. This is a great example of Mudéjar art, a style of decoration originated in Moorish Spain and is a fusion of Islamic and Christian art. There are many rooms in Nasrid Palaces and Generalife with ceilings decorated with Mudéjar art.
Patio de la Sultana – Sultana’s Court
Patio de la Sultana (Sultana’s Court)
Pond with a fountain in the Patio de la Sultana (Sultana’s Court)
The image shows the Patio de la Sultana (Sultana’s Court) located adjacent to the Patio de la Acequia (Court of the Irrigation Canal).
The court has a water-filled ditch surrounding the rectangular platform. At the center of this platform is a square pond in the middle flanked by two garden patches, each surrounded by a hedge of myrtle bushes. There is a basin with a fountain at the center of the pond. As you can see from the image, several water sprouts on the platform and the corridors are spurting water, creating semi oval-shaped water jets.
Cypress Tree and the Legend of the Abencerrajes
Cypress tree of the Abencerrajes legend standing in the Patio de la Sultana
Standing on the eastern side of the court is the dried-up tree trunk of a cypress tree, which experts believe was alive during the Nasrid period and lived for 600 years. A popular legend is centered around this cypress tree, and because of this legend the court is also known as the Patio del Ciprés de la Sultana (Sultana’s Cypress Tree Court).
As you can see from the image, there is also a small plaque next to the tree trunk. The Spanish text in the plaque refers to this cypress tree to describe the story that is central to the Legend of the Abencerrajes.
The plaque says :
Cuenta la leyenda que este ciprés de la sultana fue testigo de la amorios de un Caballero Abenceraje y la esposa de Boabdil
Here is a rough translation:
Legend has it that this Cypress Tree of the Sultana was a witness to the love affair of an Abencerraje Knight and Boabdil’s wife.
According to the legend, Moryama (Maryam bint Ibrahim al-’Attarthe), the wife of Muhammad XII (known as Boabdil, the last Sultan of Granada), had an affair with a knight belonging to the Abencerrajes, a warrior clan fiercely loyal to the Nasrids. The lovers used to meet underneath the shade of this cypress tree in the moonlight.
Plaque describing the Abencerrajes legend in the Patio de la Sultana (Sultana’s Court)
A courtier eventually discovered their secret and revealed it to the Nasrids. Enraged by the affair, Boabdil ordered the killing of the members of the Abencerrajes clan. He invited them for a meeting at his palace. The unsuspecting members accepted the invitation and gathered in a hall. While they were waiting for the king, his guards closed the doors of the hall and assassinated as many as 30 of them.
Although there is no historical or archaeological evidence to prove that this event ever took place, the fascinating story of romance and the palace intrigue has caught the imagination of people and helped to keep the mystique of the Alhambra alive.
A staircase on the south end of the Patio de la Sultana leads to the upper gardens of the Generalife. The image shows the arched gateway above that staircase. As you can see, there are two lion statues atop this gateway.
Besides numerous gardens, the upper level of the Generalife consists of the Escalera del Agua (Water Stairway), Mirador Romántico (Romantic Viewpoint), and Casa de los Amigos (House of Friends).
The image shows part of the stairway know as the Escalera del Agua (Water Stairway) situated in the upper gardens of the Generalife.
The stairway consists of three levels of steps. At the end of each level is a circular-shaped terrace with a fountain at its center. Built atop the wall on each side of the stairway is a narrow canal with the water flowing down. The shade from the trees in the surrounding gardens and the water running in the canals keep the place cooler and make the uphill walk pleasant for visitors.
Mirador Romántico – Romantic Viewpoint
In the Nasrid era, this stairway led to a small oratario (oratory or prayer hall) that existed at the upper end of the stairway, which happens to be the highest point of the Generalife. The royals used this stairway to climb up to the oratario to pray and then relax watching the panoramic view of the surrounding areas.
A small observatory known as the Mirador Romántico (Romantic Viewpoint), which is shown in the image, replaced the oratory in the 19th century. The structure does not fit well with the rest of the buildings in the Generalife because it is not a Nasrid-era building. Built in 1836 by Don Jaime Traversa, the administrator of the Generalife at that time, Mirador Romántico is a neo-gothic style building.
Located strategically on the western end of Sabika Hill, the Alcazaba is a fortress used by the Nasrid rulers to defend the Alhambra, the center of power of the Emirate of Granada. Because of its hilltop location, many kingdoms that came before them built fortifications in this site. Experts believe that even a Roman fortification existed here.
Realizing the importance of the strategic location, Mohammed I (1238–1273), the founder of the Nasrid dynasty, decided to build a fortress over a structure that already existed since 889 CE. He made it his residence and oversaw its construction. The version of the fortress he built consisted of three towers, Torre Quebrada (Broken Tower), Torre del Homenaje (Tower of Tribute), and Torre de la Vela (Tower of Vigil), all of which are still standing.
After the fall of the Nasrids, the Christian kingdoms used it for defensive purposes. Later, like all other structures in the Alhambra, it fell into disrepair after long neglect. The major restoration work started in the 19th century and continued until the early 20th century.
Entrance and Plaza de Los Aljibes
The structure shown in the image is the east-facing facade of the wall on the east side. This wall has a small door in the middle used by visitors to enter the fortress. Above the entrance is Torre Quebrada, also known as the Broken Tower, and to its right is the Torre del Homenaje, also known as the Keep. As mentioned before, these two are the original towers of the Alcazaba.
The Alcazaba Entrance and Plaza de Los Aljibes
The open space in front of the eastern wall is known as the Plaza de Los Aljibes (Plaza of the Cisterns) because of the cisterns built there by the Christian kings soon after they took over the Alhambra. When they were no longer useful, public space was created by filling them up and planting some trees and bushes. As you can see from the image, the open space in front of the Alcazaba wall is full of people who are sitting and relaxing.
The Plaza de Los Aljibes has also been a venue for numerous cultural events. The image below shows a plaque written in Spanish embedded into the exterior of the eastern rampart. It lists the important events that took place in the Plaza de Los Aljibes.
A plaque embedded into the Alcazaba wall
Here is the list: 1922 – Concurso de Cante Jondo – The Cante Jondo contest for Flamenco singers 1927 – Autos Sacramentales – These are religious dramas unique to Spain that are played during the feast of Corpus Christi 1952 – Primer Festival de Música y Danza – The First Music and Dance Festival 1976 – XXV Aniversarios del Festival – 25th Anniversary of the Festival held in 1952
The plaque was installed in 1976 to commemorate the 25th Anniversary of the first Music and Dance Festival held in 1952.
Towers on the Eastern Wall
The eastern part of the Alcazaba
The image shows a view of the west-facing facade of the eastern wall as seen from the Torre del Vela. As you can see from the image, the Torre Quebrada is in the middle and Torre del Homenaje to its left. The small semi-circular structure next to the Torre del Homenaje is the Torre del Cubo.
The area in front of the eastern wall is called the Plaza de las Armas (which is explained in the next section). Behind the eastern wall is the Palacio Carlos V (Charles V Palace) and to its right is the Iglesia de Santa María de la Alhambra (Church of St. Mary of the Alhambra). Just below the hill on the far end are the buildings belonging to the Generalife.
Torre del Homenaje
As you can see from the image, Torre del Homenaje is a robust square-shaped tower with battlements (parapet with openings at regular intervals) and merlons (construction that projects upwards) on all four sides of its terrace. This strategically located tower was used for both defensive and offensive purposes. The crenels (space between the merlons) were used for mounting the guns and embrasures (vertical slits) below the battlements used for observation.
Because of its location, Torre del Homenaje provides a vantage point for the surveillance of the Alhambra and the surrounding areas. Mohammed I lived there in the beginning and oversaw the construction of the Alcazaba.
Plaza de las Armas – The Garrison of Alcazaba
The Plaza de las Armas – The Garrison of Alcazaba
Although Plaza de las Armas means Plaza of the Weapons, it actually refers to an interior area of the fortress consisting of military quarters and storage facilities for weapons and other supplies needed for the defense of the Alhambra.
The ruins consisting of the foundation walls that you see in the image belonged to the Barrio Castrense, which is a Nasrid-era residential area consisting of houses occupied by the military commanders and soldiers stationed in the Alcazaba. As you can see, each house has an entrance, a central hall and other rooms, and a lavatory. One of the houses is larger than the others, and it most-likely belonged to the head of the garrison. It also has a small pool at the center. It is believed that Mohammed I, the founder of the Nasrid dynasty, moved his residence from the Torre del Homanaje to this house after its construction.
Torre de la Vela – The Tower of Vigil
The Torre de la Vela and Plaza de las Armas
Located on the western part of the Alcazaba, Torre de la Vela, also known as the Watch Tower, is an iconic structure that provides a 360-degree panoramic view of the surrounding areas. As mentioned before, it is one of the three towers built by Mohammed I.
With four floors and a terrace, it is the tallest tower in the Alcazaba. It also has three underground floors and a dungeon. The iconic bell tower on the terrace was not part of the original construction. The Christian kings, who took over the Alhambra, installed the bell to warn residents living in the surrounding areas of attacks and other emergencies. The tower got its name because of this bell. Velar in Spanish means to keep vigil. So, the Torre de la Vela is a tower that keeps vigil.
The Torre de la Vela terrace with a bell and flags
The tower sustained severe damages due to a variety of catastrophic events, including an explosion and earthquake, occurred during the post Nasrid period. It included the ripping off of the original battlements and breaching of part of the tower.
The image below shows a spectacular view of the snow-clad Sierra Nevada Mountains, as seen from the terrace of the Torre de la Vela. In Spanish, Sierra means mountain range, and Nevada means snowfall. As the name suggests, a lot of snow falls in these mountains. Because of the abundance of snow, they have become a popular tourist attraction, especially with skiing enthusiasts. .
Sierra Nevada Mountains – A view from the Torre de la Vela
Located 24 miles east of Mysore in Karnataka, India, the Keshava Temple in Somanthapura is a shining example of Hoysala architecture. Although not as famous or as big as the Belur – Halebidu temples, it is as stunningly beautiful and ornate. Built in 1258 CE, more than 100 years after the Belur – Halebidu temples, it is a testament to the continued patronage of arts, crafts, and temple building by the Hoysala rulers.
As the name suggests, the Somanathapura Keshava Temple is dedicated to Keshava, one of the numerous titles of Krishna, who is also the eighth avatar of Vishnu. An unusual feature of this temple is its three garbhagrihas (sanctum sanctorum). Standing inside each garbhagriha is a beautiful sculpture of Krishna, and towering above it is an ornate shikhara (conical-shaped tower) with a kalasa (inverted pot-like structure) at the top. Because of the three garbhagrihas, it is known as the trikuta temple. Note: With a single garbhagriha, the Belur Chennakeshava Temple is an ekakuta temple, and with two garbhagrihas, the Halebidu Hoysalesvara Temple is a dwikuta temple.
A bit of history
The history of the Somanathapura Temple and details of its construction is well documented in several Hoysala and Vijayanagara inscriptions. The area around the present-day Somanthapura, located on the banks of the Cauvery River, was under the Chola rule before the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana captured it in 1117 CE.
Stele erected inside the Mahadwara (main door) pavilion
According to an inscription (see the stele in the image), Somanatha, a Dandanayaka (military leader) serving under King Narasimha III (1254 – 1291 CE), took the permission from him to build a temple and established an agrahara (see the note below) and named it Vidhyanidhi Prasanna Somanathapura (Treasure of knowledge, Auspicious Somanathapura) for this purpose. Somanatha also allotted grants for the maintenance of the temple.
Note: In ancient India, agrahara is an area allocated for religious purposes by the king or the nobility to provide housing for the people (typically Brahmins) who maintain the temple.
The temple was consecrated in 1258 CE. However, it is not clear when the building of the temple began and ended. It is believed that it took 68 years to complete.
During his expedition to the south in 1311 CE aimed at grabbing precious treasures from the temples and monuments, Malik Kafur – a general under Allaudin Khilji, the ruler of the Delhi Sultanate – plundered this temple and left it badly damaged. The temple then underwent significant renovations and modifications in the 15th century during the Vijayanagara period. Later in the 20th century, the erstwhile princely state of Mysore took a keen interest in this temple and renovated it further.
Unlike the Belur – Halebidu temples, it is not an active temple because of the damaged idols in the garbhagrihas. It is now maintained by the ASI (Archaeological Survey of India).
Temple Complex
Mahadvara – Entrance to the temple complex
The entrance to the temple complex is through the Mahadvara (great door) located on the east side. As you can see from the image, Mahadvara has a doorway with a pavilion on each side. Extending these pavilions is the eastern wall of the prakara (a protective wall enclosing the temple). Erected inside the left pavilion is a stele inscribed with the dates and details of the construction of the temple.
Gallery on the west side of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple
The temple is surrounded by the galleries on the south, west, and north sides. Attached to the galleries are 64 mini shrines, which are empty because the invading armies of Malik Kafur destroyed the sculptures and looted the treasures underneath them.
Entrance
Facade and Entrance of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple
The Keshava Temple is on a star-shaped platform called Jagati, with only one entrance, which is on the east side. The approach to the doorway is through two flights of steps. The first flight of steps is from the floor to the platform, and flanking it are two mini shrines with missing idols. The second flight of steps is from the platform to the doorway.
The facade of the temple is not as ornate as Belur – Helebidu temples because most of the original facade was destroyed during the Malik Kafur attack. As you can see, the replaced elements of the facade are of different color from the rest.
The architecture of the temple is a harmonious blend of the southern Dravida and northern Nagara styles and is known as the Vesara style. The conical-shaped tower, known as shikhara (a.k.a vimana), above each garbhagriha follows the Nagara style design, and the front portion of the temple follows the classic Mantapa style design.
The temple is symmetrical about the east-west axis. In other words, the south-side layout is a mirror image of the north side (and vice-versa).
Exquisite interior
Just like the other Hoysala temples, the mantapa (covered hall) in front of the garbhagrihas conforms to the navaranga design. The navaranga is a 3×3 grid of nine rectangular sections. The middle section of the navaranga is known as the sabhamantapa (community hall). An ante-chamber, known as antarala, separates each garbhagriha from the navaranga. The porch in front of the navaranga is called the mukhamantapa.
Garbhagrihas
As mentioned earlier, the temple has garbhagrihas in three cardinal directions, i.e., south, west, and north. All three garbhagrihas are equal-sized chambers, each with a statue of Krishna in the middle and an ornate doorway in front. The relief on the lintel of each door depicts a mini version of the statue standing in the garbhagriha.
The south in the garbhagriha is dedicated to Venugopala, the west to Keshava, and north to Janardhana. All three are a form of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. The south and north garbhagrihas have the original statues, whereas the west garbhagriha has a replica of the original.
The statues in the south and north garbhagrihas are monolithic sculptures carved from Krishna Shilé (black stone), which is available in plenty in Karnataka.
South – VenuGopala
Venugopala – Krishna playing the flute inside the south garbhagriha
Standing inside the south garbhagriha on the star-shaped platform is an exquisitely carved life-size statue of Venugopala, a form of Krishna portrayed as a divine flute player. Venu means flute and Gopala means one who protects of cows.
As you can see from the image, Venugopala is standing gracefully with his legs crossed. He has elegantly bent his well-proportioned body to allow him to raise his hands to position the flute (which is partly broken) perfectly at the mouth level.
Venugopala is elegantly dressed with a beautiful skirt-like dress and is wearing jewelry all over his body. He is wearing bracelets and arm rings on his hands, anklets on his legs, beautiful necklaces around his neck, and an udiyana (waist chain) around his waist. There is a looped thread, known as yajnopavita, hanging across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist. It is a symbol indicating the person wearing it has mastered Vedas and undergone the Upanayana ceremony and is worn by gods and deities.
Venugopala is standing on a star-shaped pedestal. Carved at the center is a relief depicting kneeling Garuda, who is Vishnu’s vehicle. Surrounding him are cows and gopikas (cow herding girls who are associates of Krishna) listening to his music.
West – Keshava
Keshava – Sculpture of Vishnu standing inside the west garbhagriha
Keshava is also another name for Krishna. Kesha means hair, and Keshava is the one who has long uncut hair.
The original statue went missing, most likely after the attack by Malik Kafur. The currently installed statue is a replica built by using the Keshava relief carved on the lintel of the doorway as a reference. As you can see, the quality of the craftsmanship of the statue is inferior compared to the sculptures on the other two garbhagrihas. It also appears to be smaller.
Keshava is a chaturbhuja (i.e., one who has four arms). He holds shanka (conch) and padma (lotus) with his right hands and holds chakra and gada (mace) with his left hands. These are the signature objects that are part of Vishnu’s iconography (Read under Vishnu with Standard Iconography for more info ).
North – Janardhana
Janardhana – Sculpture of Vishnu standing inside the north garbhagriha
The image shows the sculpture depicting Janardhana, a manifestation of Krishna, standing inside the north garbhagriha.
Just like Venugopala and Keshava, Janardhana is also another name for Krishna. Jana means people and ardhana means to worship. Janardhana means the one who is worshiped by the people.
Just like Keshava, Janardhana is chaturbhuja (i.e., one with four arms) and is holding four standard emblems of Vishnu, shanka, padma, gadaa, and chakra. Notice that the order in which Janardhana is holding these objects is different from Keshava.
Like Keshava and Venugopala, Janardhana is wearing a beautiful skirt-like dress and jewelry all over his body. He is wearing bracelets and arm rings on his hands, anklets on his legs, finely carved necklaces and garlands of gems/flowers around his neck, an udiyana (waist chain) around his waist, and a looped thread, known as yajnopavita, hanging across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist.A finely carved crown adorns Janardhana’s head, which has a halo around it. Just like the other two statues, the Kirthimukha monster is at the top.
Notice his torso closely. It appears like the face of a cow (i.e., the nipples look like its eyes, and the belly button looks like its mouth). This is to indicate Janardhana is a gopala, i.e., protector of cows
As in the case most of the sculptures in this temple, there are two female figures at the bottom. Each is holding a lotus bud/ corn cob with on one hand, and a kalasa (pot) with the other.
Ceiling carved with mesmerizing patterns
The ceiling of the navaranga has 16 finely-carved rectangular sections, i.e., the navaranga has nine sectors, and the mukhamantapa (porch) has seven sections. The ceiling within each section – which is enclosed by beams placed on top of pillars – is a finely carved vault cut from a single stone.
The theme of the carvings is different phases of a blooming lotus bud. The lotus bud at is surrounded by a variety of geometrical patterns at different levels.
The images below show the lotus bud is at the center surrounded by several geometrical patterns carved at different levels of the conical shape. The pattern at the outer most level is an octagon.
Lotus bud surrounded by circular patternsLotus bud surrounded by star-like patterns Lotus bud surrounded by an endless knot
Magnificent exterior
Like many other Hoysala temples, the temple stands on a star-shaped stone platform, known as Jagati. The stone exterior wall surrounding the temple is ornate with a repertoire of stunningly beautiful artwork and sculptural reliefs.
Somanathapura Keshava Temple – Southwest Side ViewSomanathapura Keshava Temple – Back ViewSomanathapura Keshava Temple – Northwest Side View
Each garbhagriha is surrounded by a circular outer wall and above the outer wall is a conical-shaped tower with multiple levels of densely carved reliefs. As you can see from the image, the outer wall has three sections:
Base – Six bands of continuously carved friezes
Middle – Sculptural reliefs. It appears as though each sculpture is within a shrine.
Top – Decorative carvings just below the eaves. typically craved like the tower of a shrine
Attached to the outer wall are pillars with sculptural reliefs of gods and goddesses and other deities and do not appear to be carved in any particular order or following any story line.
Because this is a Vishnu temple, the majority of the reliefs are related to Vishnu, including the standard iconography of Vishnu depicting him with four hands, each with his signature objects and some of Vishnu’s ten avatars.
Vishnu with Standard Iconography
Vishnu carved on the outer wall
Vishnu, one of the Trimurti , is the supreme god who preserves the order and maintains harmony in the universe. Vishnu is typically depicted as a man with four arms, each holding one of the following four objects:
Shanka : It is a conch shell named Panchajanya that emerged as a by-product during the Samudra Manthana. It was responsible for the creation of the panchabhootas (five elements), which are: water, fire, earth, and sky. When blown, it produces giant primeval sound.
Chakra: It is a disc-like weapon named Sudarshana (which means a good view). The disc has serrated edges. When fired, it spins and moves with a rapid force to destroy evil and then returns to Vishnu.
Gada: It is a mace named Kaumodaki and represents strength
Padma: It is a sacred lotus flower that represents beauty, purity, and evolution
The order in which Vishnu holds his objects vary. With four hands, there are a total of 24 combinations, and sometimes a combination indicates a particular form of Vishnu.
As you can see from the image, Vishnu is standing on a padma peeta (lotus pedestal) mounted on a base. Engraved into this base is an inscription, written in the Halegannada (Old Kannada) script, which reads as Mallithamma. It is the signature of Ruvari Mallithamma, the most prolific carver of sculptures in the Somanathapura Keshava Temple and many Hoysala temples built in his time.
Ashtabhuja Vishnu (Eight-Armed Vishnu)
Astabhuja (8-armed) Vishnu
As mentioned in the previous section, carvings of Vishnu with standard iconography depict him with four arms, but this relief has eight. Notice that two of them are missing.
Besides his signature objects, shanka (conch), and padma (lotus), Vishnu in this relief is holding a beautifully carved dhanush (bow) and a bāna (arrow) with his left and right hands, respectively. The two missing hands at the bottom likely carried his other signature objects, chakra and gadā.
Notice that Vishnu’s two hands in front do not carry any objects. They do, however, make specific gestures, known as mudras. In Hinduism and Buddhism, each mudra has a name and meaning and symbolizes the state of mind and intentions of the person making it.
As you can see from the image, the palm of one of Vishnu’s right hands is upright and faces outwards. This gesture is known as Abhaya Mudra, which symbolizes fearlessness and reassurance. The palm of one of his left hands faces upwards, with its fingers slightly pointing downwards. This gesture is known as Vara Mudra (a.k.a Varada Mudra), which symbolizes charity and compassion.
As with the other Vishnu sculptures, he is standing on a padma peeta (lotus pedestal) accompanied by two small female figures located at the bottom.
Seated majestically on a cushion formed by Adishesha, a seven-headed mythical serpent, is Maha Vishnu, a form of Vishnu represented as a supreme being. This beautifully carved sculptural relief is mounted on the outer wall surrounding the south garbhagriha.
Maha Vishnu seated on Adisesha
As you can see, Adishesha has created a beautiful throne for Maha Vishnu by stacking up his soft coils to form its cushion and raising his seven-headed hood as its canopy.
It appears that Maha Vishnu is in a relaxed mood, indicated by his pleasant facial expression and informal way of sitting. As you can see, one of his left hands gently rests on the knee of his elevated left leg with its foot placed above the coils, while one of his right hands, which firmly rests on the coils, supports the weight of his body that is leaning slightly to his right.
Adishesha is known by many names, including Shesha, Sheshanaga, and Ananta. Hidden in these names are two interesting mathematical concepts, remainder and infinity. In Sanskrit, shesha means one that remains (i.e., remainder), and ananta means endless (i.e., infinity). In other words, Shesha will prevail even after the end of the universe, and Ananta will exist for eternity.
The sculptural relief on the left depicts Lakshminarayana, a form of Vishnu presented with his consort Lakshmi, and is one of the most beautiful sculptures in the temple. As you can see, Vishnu (as Narayana) is seated leisurely on his throne with his consort Lakshmi on his lap. This relief is mounted on the outer wall of the north garbhagriha.
Lakshminarayana is a combination of two names, Lakshmi and Narayana. Narayana is another name of Vishnu, and it means one who dwells on the water. In Sanskrit, Nara means water and Ayana means dwelling. According to Hindu mythology, Vishnu lives on the cosmic ocean.
As you can see, three of Vishnu’s four arms are missing, and the remaining one holds a gadaa (mace). Lakshmi is holding a kalasha (pot) with her left hand and lotus (top part is broken) with her right hand. Her right leg is gently resting on a lotus cushion, and her other leg is resting on Vishnu’s lap with the half-padmasana pose. Lakshmi’s vehicle, an elephant, is standing next to the lotus cushion. Vishnu’s vehicle, Garuda, is kneeling with the folded hands (namaste gesture) at the left end. Notice that his head is missing.
As per the signature at the bottom of the Lakshminarayana sculpture, Mallithamma is the carver. His attention to detail is striking. For instance, the top part of the lotus cushion is carved with a slight bend to indicate that Lakshmi is resting her leg on it.
The relief on the right is also about Lakshminarayana. In this relief, Garuda, who has a human-like body with a bird-like face, carries a smaller version of Lakshminarayana with his left hand. As you can see, Garuda is dressed elegantly and wearing fine jewelry all over his body. Adorning his head is an intricately carved mukuta (crown).
Dashavatara – Ten Incarnations of Vishnu
According to Hindu mythology, whenever there is a crisis in the universe, Vishnu, the preserver, intervenes to restore order and maintain harmony by manifesting himself in different forms, sometimes human and sometimes anthropomorphic. These manifestations (or incarnations) of Vishnu are known as avatars. The Dashavataras are the ten standard avatars, according to ancient Indian texts, including the Puranas, although there is no complete agreement on the eight and ninth avatars.
The avatars of Vishnu are spread across all four yugas (epoch), which are, Satya, Treta, Dwapara, and Kalki. Here is the list of all ten avatars:
Matsyavatara – Anthropomorphic – Human body with the fish face. See the image on the left.
Kurmavatara – Anthropomorphic – Human body with the turtle fave. See the image on the right
Varahavatara – Anthropomorphic – Human body with the wild boar face. See the image on the left below
Narasimhavatara – Anthropomorphic – Human body with the lion face and claws. See the image on the right below
Vamanavatara – Human
Parashurama – Human
Rama – Human
Krishna – Human
Buddha Human
Kalki – Human – Kalki is riding a galloping white horse
The avatars of Vishnu are spread across all four yugas (epoch), which are, Satya, Treta, Dwapara, and Kali. The first five avatars occurred during the Satya Yuga, the sixth and seventh during the Treta Yuga, and eight and ninth during the Dwapara Yuga. The last avatar hasn’t occurred yet. According to Hindu mythology, the Kalki avatar will appear at the end of Kali Yuga.
The outer wall around the south garbhagriha has the first four avatars of Vishnu shown.
Matsyavatara
Matsyavatara – The first avatar of Vishnu
In this avatar, Vishnu manifests himself into a half-fish half-human
form to save humanity from the Maha Pralaya (Great Flood). According to
the story, Vishnu appeared before King Satyavrata, also known as Manu,
in a half-fish half-human form warning him of a Maha Pralaya that would
occur for seven days and destroy all forms of life. To save them from
from the deluge, he instructed Manu to build a boat to hold all kinds of
life forms. Manu then built a gigantic boat and held pairs of living
creatures and plants and seeds. When the deluge began, Vishnu appeared
again in the half-fish half-human form to help Manu. Using Vasuki as the
rope, he towed the boat safely to the mountains in the north, i.e., Himalayas.
The story of Noah and the great flood in the Bible is strikingly
similar to the Matsyavatara story. Numerous cultures in the world also
tell similar stories.
The iconography of Vishnu in Matsyavatara has two forms: 1. Upper half-human and lower half-fish 2. Fish face and the rest human-like. The iconography of the sculpture shown in the image follows the second form. It portrays him with the face of a fish and the body of an Ashtabhuja (eight-armed) Vishnu. Notice that three of his hands are missing. The two of his remaining hands hold lotus and chakra, his signature objects. The rest hold an akshamala (rosary) and a book. He is wearing an elegant dress and beautiful jewelry. He is adorned with a finely carved mukuta (crown) on his head with a halo behind it.
Kurmavatara
Kurmavatara -The second avatar of Vishnu
In this avatar, Vishnu assumes half-man half-turtle form during the Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk), which was a collaborative effort by devas (demigods) and asuras (demons) to produce amrita, the nectar of immortality. Using the seven-headed snake called Vasuki as the rope and Mount Mandara as the churning rod, the devas and asuras tugged Vasuki to churn the ocean for thousands of years to produce amrita. Vishnu assumed the form of a turtle and went under Mount Mandara to enable churning.
The image depicts Vishnu with the face of a turtle. The rest of the body is human with four hands, two of which are holding chakra and shanka, his signature objects. The other two are holding an egg-like object known as Hiranyagarbha, or the cosmic golden womb. In Sanskrit, hiranya means golden, and garbha means womb. According to both the Rigveda and Yajurveda, Prajapathi, an deity who eventually became a form of Brahma, was born from this womb. However, they differ in what he created. The Rigveda says the Pajapathi created abstract entities like mana (mind), kama (desire), and tapas (austerity). As per the Yajurveda, he created the sky, earth, seasons, devas, asuras, etc.
Varahavatara and Narsimhavatara
Varahavatara and Narasimhavatara are related. Vishnu slays an evil asura named Hiranyaksha with Varahatara and then kills his brother Hiranyakashipu with Narasimhavatara.
Varahavatara – The third avatar of Vishnu
Narasimhavatara – The fourth avatar of Vishnu
Varahavatara is the third of the ten avatars of Vishnu. Varaha in Sanskrit means wild boar. In this avatar, he assumes the form of a wild boar and rescues Bhudevi (Mother Earth) from an evil demon named Hiranyaksha, who was tormenting her.
In Narasimhavatara, Vishnu has a man’s torso with a lion’s face and claws. Narasimha in Sanskrit mean lion-man. He adopted this body to kill an asura named Hiranyakashipu, who wanted to take revenge on Vishnu for killing his brother Hiranyaksha in his previous avatar, i.e., Varahavatara.
Other incarnations of Vishnu
Mohiniavatara – A female avatar of Vishnu
Danvantari
The incarnations in the two images emerged during the Samudra Manthana.
Dhanvantari is the god of medicine in Hindu mythology. According to the Bhagavad Purana, he is an incarnation of Vishnu, who emerged with a pot of amrita during the Samundra Manthana .
As you can see from the image, he is carrying a kalasha (pot) with his right hand and a bowl with medicines with his left hand. His two missing hands most-likely carried shanka and chakra.
Mohiniavatara is a female avatar of Vishnu and just like Dhanvantari, she also is a by-product of Samudra Manthana (Note: Moha means Infatuation or crush. Mohini means a seductress).
Once the churning produced amrita, asuras cleverly stole all of it. When Vishnu realized that asuras have amrita, he appeared as a young beautiful woman, a femme fatale, who enticed asuras and successfully grabbed amrita back from them and gave it to the devas.
Other gods, goddesses and deities
Brahma and Sarasvati
Brahma, the creator
Sarasvati, the goddess of knowledge and learning
In Hindu mythology, Brahma is responsible for the creation and is one of the Trimurti (Hindu Trinity) and the other two being Vishnu and Shiva. He is typically shown with four heads, each facing a cardinal direction, and four hands.
This relief is carved on a pillar on the exterior wall surrounding the south garbagriha. As you can see from the image, Brahma has three heads (the assumption is that the fourth head [facing east] is not visible), and four hands, two on each side, and each carrying an object.
He is carrying a spoon (used for pouring ghee into the yagna pyre) and japamala (prayer beads) with his right hands, a kamandala (water jug) and a book (Vedas) with his left hands.
Although Brahma is the creator in Hindu mythology, he is not worshiped as widely as Vishnu or Shiva. There are very few temples dedicated to Brahma in the world. The Brahma Temple in Prambanan (in Yogyakarta, Indonesia) is one of the few temples dedicated to Brahma. The other well-known Brahma Temple is in Pushkar, Rajasthan, India.
Sarasvati is the goddess of knowledge and learning. Sarasvati means one that flows. During the Vedic times, she was the deity represented the Sarasvati River, an ancient river that used to flow in the northwest region (present-day Afganistan and Pakistan) but dried up 3000 years go. Later texts associated her with Brahma and made her his consort.
The relief shown in the image is not the usual representation of Sarasvati. Her standard iconography shows her playing the veena, a sitar-like musical instrument. She is typically shown with two hands and occasionally four, and in this relief, however, she has eight hands (three of which are missing). Instead of the veena, she is holding a talegari (book made of palm leaves) with two of her hands. The talegari indicates that she is the goddess of knowledge and learning.
It appears from Sarasvati’s stance that she is dancing with a traditional Indian dance move. Accompanying her are the two musicians at the bottom (one of them is missing).
Indra and Surya
Indra and Indrani riding Airavata
Surya, the Sun God
The image on the left shows a beautifully carved sculptural relief depicting Indra, the king of Swarga and devas (demigods), seated majestically on his vehicle Airavata, a white elephant, with his wife Indrani (also known as Sachi) seated behind him.
This sculpture is mounted on the outer wall surrounding the southern garbhagriha As you can see from the image, Indra is wielding his signature weapon Vajrayuda (Thunderbolt) with his right hand and holding a lotus bud with his left hand.
The sculptural relief shown on the right depicts Surya, i.e., the Sun, as a god. As you can see from the image, Surya is holding a lotus flower with his right hand. Although the top part is missing, the object in his left hand is also a lotus flower. The lotus flowers are part of the standard iconography of Surya and were used to identify this sculpture. At the bottom of this sculpture are his consorts Saranyu and Chhaya, who are twin sisters.
This page is about Badami, a small town in in northern Karnataka with a glorious past., where the Chalukya Empire was founded 1500 years ago, and remained its capital until 753 CE.
its iconic landmarks, which include four rock-cut cave temples, Agastya Lake, and temples in the surrounding area. This page describes important landmarks of Badami with detailed images captured from vantage points. These include four rock-cut temples, Agastya Lake and temples in the surrounding area.
A Vibrant Town with a Glorious Past
Badami is just another town in northern Karnataka, but with an exception. Here, a glorious chapter in the history of India, Karnataka in particular, was written, when Pulakeshi I, a vassal/feudal lord from nearby Aihole, established the Chalukya Empire about 1500 years ago. It flourished for 200 more years and became the precursor to the other powerful empires, including the Vijayanagara Empire, that ruled the region for another eight hundred years.
When Pulakeshi I saw Badami, he fell in love with its beauty, and at the same time, he recognized its strategic importance because of its location. Badami offers a natural defense against enemy attacks because of the rugged sandstone hills around it. He moved his capital from Aihole to Badami and founded his dynasty by declaring his independence in 540 CE. His lineage became known as the Badami Chalukyas or Early Chalukyas.
Badami remained as their capital until 753 CE when its last ruler Kirtivarman II was overthrown by the Rastrakutas, the feudatory of Badami Chalukyas. The Badami Chalukyas later split into the Eastern and Western Chalukyas and ruled the region until the 12th century.
The Western Chalukyas eventually defeated the Rastrakutas and occupied Badami in the 10th century. They built a few new temples and enhanced the existing temples, especially the Jain temple in Cave 4. Later, the Vijayanagara Empire gained control of Badami. However, Badami never regained its past glory.
Tippu Sultan, the tiger of Mysore, also left his mark in Badami in the 18th century. Enamored by its beauty and the strategic location, he built forts around the existing ruins on the northern and southern sandstone hills. He built granaries and the treasury in the north fort and a watch tower in the south fort.
Chalukyas were benevolent rulers, and under their patronage, religions, arts, and most importantly, the Kannada language flourished. They were responsible for building numerous temples in and around Badami, including the magnificent rock-cut cave temples. The dynasties that came after the Chalukyas continued this trend, and the temple building flourished. As a result, hundreds of beautiful temples, big and small, dedicated to a variety of gods and goddesses, now dot the landscape of Karnataka and the surrounding regions.
Cave Temples of Badami – Masterpieces of Chalukya Temple Art
Carved out of a red sandstone hill overlooking the beautiful Agastya Lake, the four cave temples of Badami are great works of art. Because of their stunningly beautiful carvings – enhanced by the colorfulness and pleasant texture of the red sandstone – they stand out from the rest of the cave temples in India (which include Ajantha-Ellora caves, Karla caves, Elephanta caves, and Barabar caves).
The cave temples were constructed by meticulously carving out the stone material from the rock to create beautiful structures, sculptures, and sculptural reliefs. Visiting these masterpieces of art and architecture is a fascinating experience. It is mind-boggling how ancient Indians were able to create such magnificent structures without the aid of sophisticated machinery or tools.
Built next to each other and connected via stone staircases, the four cave temples are labeled Cave 1, Cave 2, Cave 3, and Cave 4, based on the sequence of their approach. In other words, you would visit Cave 1 first and Cave 4 last.
The chronological order of their construction is not known because of lack of inscriptions. Only Cave 3 has inscription detailing its dating. However, it is generally believed that they were constructed in the same sequence as their approach.
Check these pages for a detailed explanation of these caves:
According to the inscriptions found in the area, Badami was known as Vatapi when it was the capital of the Early Chalukyas. It got its name from the legend of two rakshasa (demon) brothers, Vatapi and Ilvala, who used to live the region and tormented the travelers. Agastya, a powerful rishi (sage) who lived in the Vindhyas, eventually killed them. Badami has an ancient lake in the valley between the sandstone hills, and the inscriptions refer to it as Agastya Tirtha or Agastya Mahasarovara, most likely because of this legend.
Agastya Thirta
Agastya Lake in Badami
Agastya Thirta is an artificial lake sandwiched between the northern and southern red sandstone hills of Badami. Commissioned most-likely by the Early Chalukyas and created by building a dam on its west side. The magnificent Badami caves are located on the southwest side of the lake. This picture was taken from a vantage point near Cave 2 of the Badami Caves.
The red sandstone cliffs located north of the lake are home to ancient temples built mostly by the Early Chalukyas. The temple at the top of the hill is called the Upper Shivalaya, and the small temple at the extreme left is called the Lower Shivalaya. Both the temples are now dedicated to Shiva and built by the Early Chalukyas in the 6th century CE.
If you expand the image, the walls of the fort built by Tippu Sultan are visible. The temple on the dam is the Yellamma Temple (See below), which was built by the Western Chalukyas in the 11th century CE.
Agastya Lake – A view from the north side
The image shows a view of the Agastya Lake from the north side with the dam on the right and the northern red sandstone hills at the far end. If you expand the image, you can see Cave 1 and Cave 4. Cave 2 and Cave 3 are hidden by the rocks.
At the top of the hill, you can see the Badami Fort, built in 543 CE by Pulakeshi I, and a watchtower built by Tippu Sultan. The entrance with steps to the watchtower and the fort is located in an opening in the rocks between Cave 2 and Cave 3.
Bhuthanatha Temple on the Eastern Shore
The image shows a view of the Bhuthanatha Temple on the eastern shores of the Agastya Lake. This picture was taken from Cave 4 of the Badami caves located on the southern red sandstone hills.
Bhuthanatha Temple on the eastern shore
During the monsoon season, the water level reaches up to the temple platform. As you can see from the image, the water has receded, and the near-end of the image shows the dried-up lake bed.
This temple is dedicated to Bhuthanatha, a form of Shiva, and dated to the 8th century CE. The temple underwent modifications in the later when the Western Chalukyas ruled Badami.
Yellamma Temple on the Western Shore
The image shows a view of the Yellamma Temple built on top of the dam on the west side of the Agastya Lake. The picture was taken from Cave 2 of the Badami Caves located on the southern red sandstone hills.
Yellamma Temple on the west side of the Agastya Lake
As the name suggests, the temple is dedicated to Yellamma, a popular
goddess worshiped in parts of Karnataka and Telangana. Yellamma is a
local name for Renuka, the wife of Rishi Jamadagni and the mother of Parashurama, the sixth avatar of Vishnu. The temple was built by the later Chalukyas in the 11th century CE.
As you can see from the image, the temple has a beautiful shikara (tower) above its garbhagriha (inner sanctum) and a mantapa (hall) in front of it. The architecture of this temple is a fusion of nagara-style of North India with the mantapa-style of South India (i.e., Dravida architecture).
The image shows structures on top of northern red sandstone hills which are north of the Agastya Lake, and opposite of similar sandstone hills on the south side o this lake. The south-side hills home to four magnificent rock-cut cave temples.
Upper Shivalaya, North Fort, and Watch Towers in Badami
At the top is Upper Shivalaya built by the Chalukyas in the 6th century CE. Surrounding Upper Shivalaya is a fort rebuilt by Tippu Sultan. The two structures below the Upper Shivalaya are the watchtowers.
According to the information on the ASI (Archeological Survey of India) plaque, the Upper Shivalaya was originally a Vishnu temple, which became a Shivalaya (a temple for Shiva) in the later years. It has sculptural reliefs related to Vishnu and Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu. The idol in the garbhagriha is missing.
Lower Shivalaya
The image shows the remnants of a once magnificent temple, now known as the Lower Shivalaya, located just below the Upper Shivalaya and to the east of the Malegitti Shivalaya.
Lower Shivalaya in Badami
Only the inner sanctum and the tower above it have survived. The idol in the inner sanctum is missing. The temple was originally dedicated to Vatapi Ganapathi and was well known in olden times. Even today, Carnatic musicians invoke the blessings of Vatapi Ganapathi by singing Vatapi Ganapathi Bhajeyam.
Malegitti Shivalaya
The image shows the Malegitti Shivalaya built on the red sandstone cliffs located north of the Agastya Lake.
Malegitti Shivalaya in Badami
According to the information on the ASI (Archeological Survey of India) plaque, the temple is dated to the late 7th century CE and was dedicated to Surya, the sun god. The original idol in the garbhagriha (inner sanctum) is missing. However, there is a relief depicting Surya riding seven horses on the lintel of the garbhagriha door. Check the Surya idol in the Surya shrine in the Hoysalesvara Temple complex in Halebidu.
As you can see from the image, the outer wall contains jālandharas (perforated windows) and devakoshtas (niches), which are unique to the Davida-style architecture. The Durga Temple in Aihole, also built by Badami Chalukyas, has similar architectural elements installed in its inner wall. The richly decorated shikhara (tower) of Malegitti Shivalaya is unique in that it is octagonal.
It is not clear how the temple got its name. In Kannada, mālé means garland and mālegitti means lady garland maker. It became a Shivalaya (a shrine for Shiva) after a Shivalinga was installed in its garbhagriha (inner sanctum) years later.
Cave 3 at Badami, the largest and most elaborate of the rock-cut temples, stands as a magnificent tribute to Maha Vishnu and the artistic brilliance of the Early Chalukyas. Completed in 578 CE, the cave combines grand architecture with richly detailed sculptural panels depicting Vishnu’s avatars and legends from the Puranas, offering visitors a remarkable glimpse into early Hindu temple art carved in living rock.
Among the four rock-cut cave temples at Badami, Cave 3 stands out for its exquisite carvings, beautifully enhanced by the natural colors and textures of the stone itself. As its name suggests, it is the third cave encountered from the main entrance of the cave complex.
Dedicated to Maha Vishnu, Cave 3 is the largest of the four caves and showcases elegant mantapa-style architecture. It is also the most elaborate, featuring an extraordinary ensemble of sculptural reliefs depicting Vishnu’s avatars and mythological narratives from the Puranas.
For detailed descriptions of the other three caves, please refer to the following pages:
In Hindu mythology, Maha Vishnu represents a supreme form of Vishnu, one of the Trimurti (the Hindu Trinity), who is responsible for preserving cosmic order and maintaining harmony in the universe. Regarded as the primordial source from whom even the creator Brahma emerges—often described as the “creator of the creator”—Vishnu is revered as Maha Vishnu (Great Vishnu).
Unlike the other three caves, Cave 3 bears an inscription that records its precise date of completion. This inscription states that the cave was completed in 578 CE by Chalukya Mangalesha, the stepbrother of King Kirtivarma I of the Chalukya dynasty. It also records his donation of the village of Lanjisvara (present-day Nandikesvara) to the temple.
As the temple is dedicated to Vishnu, most of its carvings depict Vishnu, his various avatars, and episodes from the Puranas associated with his legends.
Facade and Entrance
Facade and Entrance
Cave 3 stands out from the other three caves due to its larger size and the remarkable precision and finesse of its carvings. In contrast to the other caves, it features a broader façade and a spacious courtyard enclosed by a prakara (protective wall).
As seen in the image, the central staircase provides access to the temple. It leads to a narrow terrace, behind which stand six pillars embellished with beautiful artwork and reliefs.
Elegant Mantapa-Style Architecture
Ground Plan of Cave – 3
Like the other three caves, Cave 3 follows the mantapa-style architecture, consisting of three distinct sections.
1. Mukhamantapa (Verandah or Porch) The mukhamantapais a narrow hall near the entrance, supported six squarish pillars on the side facing the courtyard and four pillars on the side facing the garbhagriha. Its ceiling is ornate with bas-reliefs depicting Vishnu, Brahma, Indra, Varuna, and Yama.
2. Sabhamantapa (Congregation Hall) – The sabhamantapais a large hall flanked by two aisles. The rectangular ceiling panel is divided into nine framed sections, each carved with a bas-relief. The central panel depicts Brahma, while Kartikeya appears in the southern panel, Varuna in the western panel, Indra in the eastern panel, and Kubera in the northern panel.
3. Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum) – The garbhagrihais a small chamber carved into the rock at the rear of the cave. The principal deity is now missing; however, according to some scholars, a statue of Maha Vishnu once stood in this sanctum.
Mukamantapa: Porch Embellished with Exquisite Carvings
The mukhamantapa is highly ornate with an ensemble of decorative elements. Its walls feature large narrative sculptural reliefs while the ceiling and eves are adorned with intricately carved bas-reliefs. The pillars display fine workmanship, and traces of murals — though now mostly faded — can still be seen on the eaves.
At either end of the mukhamantapa, along the edge facing the garbhagriha, small extensions project almost at right angles to the sidewalls. In addition, the mukhamantapa sidewalls extend beyond the façade at both ends. As shown in the ground plan, these extensions create three carved walls at each end of the mukhamantapa.
The image below shows the left half of the mukhamantapa, which resembles the royal court (durbar) of a king.
Vishnu seated on Seshanaga
Maha Vishnu is seated majestically on a throne formed by Adishesha, a seven-headed mythical serpent. His vehicle Garuda is on the lower left, while his consort Lakshmi is on the lower right.
Adishesha is known by many names, including Shesha, Sheshanaga, and Ananta. Embedded within these names are the two intriguing mathematical concepts. In Sanskrit, shesha means “that which remains” (i.e., remainder), and ananta means “endless” or “infinite.” Symbolically, Shesha will remain even after the end of the universe, and Ananta will exist for eternity.
The squarish pillars on the left are richly embellished with carvings of beautiful patterns and reliefs depicting figures and stories drawn from ancient Indian texts and Hindu epics. The ceiling also has intricately carved bas-reliefs of Vishnu, Brahma, and Ashta Dikpalas (eight guardians of the directions), including Indra and Yama.
Varahavatara: The Third Avatar of Vishnu
The image shows a large sculptural relief illustrating the story of Varahavatara, carved into the wall perpendicular to the left sidewall of the mukhamantapa.
Sculptural relief depicting the story of Varahavatara
Varahavatara is the third of the ten avatars of Vishnu (dashavatara). In Sanskrit, varaha means “wild boar.” In this avatar, Vishnu assumes the form of a wild boar and rescues Bhudevi (Mother Earth) from an evil demon Hiranyaksha, who was tormenting her. As depicted in the relief, Vishnu as Varaha lifts Bhudevi from the cosmic ocean represented by multi-headed nagas (serpents).
The story of Varahavatara is a popular sculptural theme in both Chalukya and Hoysala temples. The Chennakeshava Temple and the Hoysaleswara Temple feature several finely carved Varahavatara reliefs on their walls. Within the Badami cave complex itself, Cave 2 also has a Varahavatara relief carved into its wall.
A Varahavatara sculpture can be found in one of the devakoshtas of the Durga Temple at Aihole, about 22 miles east of Badami. Also built by the Badami Chalukyas, it is a free-standing temple carved with many sculptures and reliefs that closely resemble those found in the Badami cave temples.
Ashtabhuja (Eight-Armed) Vishnu
This beautiful relief depicting Vishnu with eight arms is carved on the left extension of the facade.
Ashtabhuja (Eight-Armed) Vishnu
The carvings of Vishnu with standard iconography show him with four arms. In this relief, however, he has four additional arms, making a total of eight. This feature indicates that he is indeed Maha Vishnu, to whom Cave 3 is dedicated.
In this finely-carved relief, Vishnu is wearing elaborate jewelry around his neck, arms, wrists and waist, and a tall crown on his head. He stands elegantly with a composed expression.
Each of his eight hands holds an object. Here are his signature objects in four of his hands: 1. Chakra (A disc-like weapon) – right hand, first from the top 2. Gadā (Mace) – right hand, third from the top 3. Padma (Lotus) – missing, left hand, second from the top 4. Shankha (Conch Shell) – left hand, first from the top
The remaining four hands hold the following objects: 1. Dhanush (Bow) – left hand, third from the top 2. Bāna (Arrow) – right hand, second from top 3. Sword (partly broken) – right hand in front 4. Rope – left hand in front
One of the most fascinating reliefs in Cave 3 depicts the Vamanavatara, an important avatar of Vishnu described in the Puranas. The sculptural relief shown below, carved into the left sidewall near the entrance of the cave, illustrates this story. Vamanavatara is the fifth of the ten avatars of Vishnu (Dashavatara).
Vamanavatara relief depicting Mahabali, Vamana, and Trivikrama
In Vamanavatara, Vishnu appears in two forms: 1. Vamana, the dwarf brahmin holding a wooden umbrella 2. Trivikrama, the gigantic form of Vishnu taking a giant stride. In this avatar, Vishnu curbs the powers of the asura king Mahabali and relegates him to Patala (Netherworld).
In this relief, Trivikrama is portrayed as Ashtabhuja Vishnu. His additional four hands carry a bow, arrow, sword and a shield. As seen in the image, Trivikrama’s left foot is on Mahabali’s head as he takes a giant stride.
Trivikrama’s raised leg stretches above the site where Mahabali is performing yajnato please Vishnu. Attending him are the brahmins who are holding ritual materials to offer them as sacrifices into the yajna pyre. The Vamana sculpture under Trivikrama’s raised leg is missing, but his umbrella can still be seen.
Note: Yajna is a Hindu religious ceremony performed by priests (brahmins) in front of a ritual fire. It includes a ritual in which sacrificial materials are poured into the fire as priests chant hymns from the sacred texts.
The Story of Vamanavatara
In this avatar, Vishnu takes the form of a diminutive brahmin to punish Mahabali, a benevolent asura (demon) king who harbored the ambition to acquire more power and defeat the devas (demigods). Mahabali was also a grandson of Hiranyakashipu, who was slain by Narasimha (man-lion), a previous avatar of Vishnu.
To fulfill Mahabali’s ambition, his guru Shukracharya advises him to perform yajna – a ritual conducted before a sacred fire – to please Vishnu and acquire more power. Indra, the lord of the heavens and the king of the devas, sees Mahabali as a threat to his position and authority and seeks Vishnu’s help to curb Mahabali’s power and save the devas from defeat.
Vishnu agrees and incarnates himself as Vamana, a dwarf brahmin carrying a wooden umbrella. Vamana goes to the site of the yajnaand asks Mahabali to grant him a piece of land that would cover his three strides. Mahabali considers it as a trivial request, and against the advice of his guru Shukracharya, who senses a trickery, grants his wish.
As soon as Mahabali grants his wish, Vamana, the diminutive brahmin, transforms himself into Trivikrama, an enormous giant. With his long legs, Trivikrama takes his first stride from Bhuloka (Earth) to Swarga (Heaven) and then the second stride from Bhuloka to Patala (Netherworld).
Vishnu then asks Mahabali where he should place his third stride, since the first two had already covered all the realms, Mahabali humbly offers his own head. Vishnu places his foot on Mahabali’s head and pushes him down to Patala.
Once Mahabali is relegated to Patala, Vishnu grants him the immortality as a reward and allows him to return to Earth once every year because he was a benevolent king.
This dramatic moment of Vishnu as Trivikrama taking a giant stride and subduing Mahabali is beautifully captured in the sculptural panel of Cave 3.
Narasimhavatara: The Fourth Avatar of Vishnu
The image below shows a large-size sculptural relief depicting Narasimhavatara, the fourth of the ten avatars of Vishnu (dashavatara), carved into the right sidewall of the mukhamantapa.
Narasimhavatara
The Story of Narasimhavatara
In this avatar, Vishnu has a man’s torso with the lion’s face and claws. He adopted this body to kill an asura named Hiranyakashipu, who wanted to take revenge on Vishnu for killing his brother Hiranyaksha in his previous avatar, i.e., Varahavatara.
To avenge his brother’s death, Hiranyakashipu performs an intense tapasu (austerity and meditation) to please Brahma, hoping to obtain a vara (boon) that would grant him special powers and make him immortal.
Pleased with Hiranyakashipu, rahma appears before him and asks him to state his wish. When Brahma realizes that he wants to become immortal, he refuses his request but allows him to ask for other varas. Hiranyakashipu then cleverly asks Brahma that he must not be killed by either a man or an animal, and that no weapon should be able to kill him.
Brahma accedes to this request and endows him with the vara. With the superpowers he gained from the vara, Hiranyakashipu assumes the godly status and starts tormenting Vishnu’s devotees, including his own son Prahlada.
To end Hiranyakashipu’s tyranny, Vishnu cleverly transforms himself as Narasimha (lion-man) and slays Hiranyakashipu in a gruesome manner by ripping off his entrails with his bare claws.
The story of Narasimhavatara is also a popular theme in both Chalukya and Hoysala temple art. It is depicted, for example, in the Ugra Narasimha relief carved into the outer wall of the Chennakeshava Temple at Belur. The Durga Temple at Aihole also contains a Narasimhavatara sculpture installed in one of its devakoshtas (niches).
Harihara: Vishnu and Shiva as a Single Entity
This large-size sculptural relief depicting Harihara is carved into the perpendicular extension of the sidewall on the right side of the mukhamantapa. Harihara represents the symbolic unification of Vishnu and Shiva, forming a single entity made from half of Vishnu’s and half of Shiva’s features. Because of this fusion, the followers of both the Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions worship him.
Sculptural relief depicting Harihara
As seen in the image, Harihara is carved with Vishnu’s features on the left side and Shiva’s features on the right side. One of the left hands carries a shanka (conch), a signature object of Vishnu, indicating that the left part of Harihara belongs to Vishnu. One of the right hands carries a staff with a serpent, and the right part of his crown has a half-moon, kapala (skull cup), and a serpent, indicating that the right part of Harihara belongs to Shiva.
This is one of the most beautiful sculptural reliefs carved in the Badami cave complex. Enhancing its beauty are the rich red and bluish tones of the sandstone, which highlight the fine details of the carving.
The images below show the bas-reliefs carved into the ceiling of the mukhamantapa.
Vishnu, the Preserver
Vishnu carved into the ceiling of the mukhamantapa
As seen from the image, there are two concentric circular panels enclosed by a square panel. Carved into the innermost circular panel is a relief depicting Vishnu with four arms, one of which carries the Sudarshana Chakra (disc-like weapon) and the other a shankha (conch).
Filling the space between the outer and inner circular panels are the eight circular frames, likely carved with the Ashta Dikpalas (Guardians of the eight directions). Some of them are identifiable, including Indra (riding an elephant), Kubera, Varuna (riding Makara), Agni (riding a ram), and Nirtti (riding a horse).
Covering the space between the outer circular panel and the square panel is beautiful artwork depicting foliage spewed by Makara.
Brahma, the Creator
Brahma carved into the ceiling of the mukhamantapa
Just like the Vishnu relief, this relief also has two concentric circular frames. The inner circular frame depicts Brahma seated majestically on his vehicle Hamsa (a swan). One of his four hands carries a long-handled spoon, and another a japamala(prayer beads).
Between the outer and inner circular frames, there are eight smaller circular frames, each with a relief carved inside.
The relief above Brahma depicts Yama, the god of justice and death, riding a buffalo. The relief below him depicts Varuna, the sea god, riding Makara. To his left is the relief depicting Indra, the king of heaven and the devas (demigods), riding Airavata, an elephant. To his right is the relief depicting Kartikeya, a son of Shiva and the god of war, riding a peacock. The other four circular frames have reliefs of yakshas and vidyadhara couples.
Yama, the God of Justice and Death
Yama carved into the ceiling of the mukhamantapa
The Yama relief is similar to Vishnu and Brahma relief except for the number of circular frames between inner and outer frames. The inner circular frame depicts Yama, the god of justice and death, riding his vehicle, a male buffalo.
Between the outer and inner circular frames, there are four smaller circular frames, each with a relief carved inside.
Garuda on the Eaves
Garuda carved on the eves
The image shows a sculptural relief depicting Vishnu’s vehicle Garuda carved on the eaves of Cave 3. This relief is above the entrance and faces the interior side of the temple. In this sculpture, Garuda, a mythical eagle-like bird, is portrayed with a human body having two wings and the nose resembling a beak. Flying above Garuda’s wings are two vidyadhara couples.
Sabhamantapa: Spacious and Well-designed
Sabhamantapa and mukhamantapa – A view from the garbhagriha
Compared to the other three cave temples, Cave 3 has a spacious and well-designed interior. Check the ground plan to see its layout.
The hall at the near end of the image is the sabhamantapa (congregation hall), and the horizontal aisle at the far end is the mukhamantapa(porch), which overlooks the courtyard. At the center of the outer edge of the mukhamantapa is the entrance to the temple. On the eves above the entrance is the bas-relief of Vishnu’s vehicle Garuda watching the garbhagriha.
If you notice the ceiling, there is a 3 x 3 grid that neatly divides it into nine blocks. This design is called Navaranga, which means nine sectors in Kannada. The architects of Hoysala temples used the concept of Navaranga to design mantapas in front of the garbhagrihas. Read more about the Navaranga in the Belur Chennakeshava Temple – Navaranga page.
Sabhamantapa – Left side viewSabhamantapa – Right side view
The intricately carved bas-reliefs adorn each of the nine blocks, and as you can see, some of them are weathered. Carved into the central block is Brahma, the creator and one of the Trimurti. Carved into the rest of the blocks around are the Ashta Dikpalas (guardians of the eight directions).
In Indian mythology, space has eight directions, four cardinal and four inter-cardinal, each with a dikpala, the god who oversees that direction. Check the Ashta Dikpalas painting on the Hampi Virupaksha Temple Murals for a list and descriptions of all the dikpalas.
The Navaraga truly represents cosmic space as experienced by a human being. The builders of this temple tried to capture this concept in stone.
Garbhagriha: An Ornate Sanctum Without a Deity
Entrance to the garbhagrihaGarbhagriha
As seen in the image on the left, an elegantly carved staircase at the center leads to the garbhagriha, which is set at a higher level than the subhamantapa. The sculptural reliefs carved on either side of the staircase depict the Vishnu’s dwarapalas (a.k.a. dwarapalakas), Jaya and Vijaya. Surrounding the door to the garbhagriha are multiple layers of exquisite artwork on stone.
The garbhagriha is a small chamber carved out of the stone at the rear of the cave temple. As shown in the image on the right, only the pedestal of the principal deity remains. Experts believe that a statue of Maha Vishnu once stood on this pedestal.
The Grandeur of Cave 3
Perched within the red sandstone cliffs of Badami, Cave 3 represents the artistic excellence of the Early Chalukya period. It is the largest and most architecturally advanced of the four rock-cut cave temples. Dedicated to Maha Vishnu and completed in 578 CE, the cave showcases elegant mantapa-style architecture and an extraordinary collection of sculptural reliefs depicting Vishnu’s avatars and mythological narratives from the Puranas. From the majestic image of Maha Vishnu seated on Adishesha to the dynamic reliefs of Varahavatara, Narasimhavatara, Vamanavatara and other divine forms, Cave 3 reflects the devotional spirit of early Hindu temples.
Cave 2 is one of the four rock-cut cave temples carved out of a red sandstone hill near Badami in Karnataka, India. As its name suggests, it is the second cave encountered from the main entrance of the cave complex.
For detailed descriptions of the other three caves, refer to the following pages:
Unlike Cave 1, which is dedicated to Shiva, Cave 2 is primarily dedicated to Vishnu. It contains sculptural reliefs depicting his avatars and stories taken from episodes from ancient Indian texts such as the Puranas.
Comparable in size and similar in overall design to Cave 1, Cave 2 displays the distinctive artistic style of the Early Chalukyas, with ornate pillars, intricately carved ceilings, and walls adorned with narrative reliefs.
No inscriptions have been found that record the exact date of the excavation or completion of this cave. However, experts believe that the cave temple was likely completed in the late 6th or early 7th century.
Cave 2 is situated at a higher elevation than Cave 1. The approach to Cave 2 is through a flight of steps located on the left side of the Cave 1 courtyard.
Facade and Layout
Facade and Entrance
Ground plan
The image on the left shows the rectanguar façade of the cave temple and the rock from which it was carved. The façade features four pillars and a short flight of steps leading to the entrance of the temple.
The layout of the temple is shown in the image below. Like Cave 1, Cave 2 is also a mantapa-style temple consisting of a garbhagriha, sabhamantapa, and mukhamantapa.
The garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) is a small chamber carved into the rock at the rear of the cave and once housed a statue of Vishnu, which is now missing. In front of the garbhagriha lies the sabhamantapa, supported by three rows of pillars. Beyond it is the mukhamantapa (verandah), whose front portion forms the façade with four pillars visible at the entrance.
Mukhamantapa: The Ornate Front Porch
The mukhamantapa serves as the front porch or verandah of the cave temple. Its lateral walls display narrative sculptural reliefs depicting two avatars of Vishnu, while the ceiling is adorned with intricately carved bas-reliefs.
Varahavatara: The Third Avatar of Vishnu
Sculptural relief depicting Varahavatara
Carved into the left sidewall of the mukhamantapa, this sculptural relief depicts the story of Varahavatara, the third of the ten avatars of Vishnu.
In Sanskrit, Varaha means “wild boar.” In this avatar, Vishnu assumes the form of a wild boar to rescue Bhudevi (Mother Earth) from an evil demon named Hiranyaksha, who was tormenting her by submerging the earth in cosmic waters. After a fierce battle, Varaha slays Hiranyaksha and lifts Bhudevi to safety.
As depicted in the image, Varaha is shown lifting Bhudevi, while the defeated Hiranyaksha lay dying on the ground after being slain by Vishnu.
The story of Varahavatara is a popular theme in both Chalukya and Hoysala temple art. Cave 3 of this cave complex also features the Varahavatara relief carved into its wall, reflecting the importance of this story in Chalukya rock-cut architecture.
A beautiful sculpture depicting Varahavatara can be found in one of the devakoshtas of the Durga Temple at Aihole, about 22 miles east of Badami. Also built by the Badami Chalukyas, it is a free-standing temple, richly adorned with sculptures and reliefs similar in style and iconography to those in the Badami cave temples.
Vamanavatara: The Fourth Avatar of Vishnu
Vamanavatara relief depicting Mahabali, Vamana, and Trivikrama
Carved into the right sidewall of the mukhamantapa, this sculptural relief illustrates the story of Vamanavatara, the fourth of Vishnu’s ten avatars.
Vishnu takes two forms in this avatar:
Dwarf Brahmin – Vishnu assumes a small, humble figure holding a wooden umbrella, symbolizing his unassuming appearance when approaching the asura king.
Gigantic Trivikrama – Vishnu assumes a gigantic form in which he takes a giant stride, measuring the three worlds in a single step.
In this avatar, Vishnu curbs the powers of the asura king Mahabali, ultimately relegating him to Patala (the Netherworld).
In the relief, Mahabali is seen clinging to Trivikrama’s leg as he takes a giant stride. Vamana, who is holding a wooden umbrella, is seen standing under Trivikrama’s extended leg at the spot where Mahabali is performing yajnato please Vishnu. Attending him are the other brahmins who are holding materials to offer them as sacrifices at the yajna pyre.
Note: Yajna is a Hindu religious ceremony performed by the priests (brahmins) in front of a ritual fire. During the ritual, sacrificial materials—such as grains, ghee, or herbs—are offered into the fire while the priests chant hymns from sacred texts.
This eye-catching relief, known as Matsya Chakra (Fish Wheel), is carved into the ceiling of the mukhamantapa. The Matsya Chakra is a wheel consisting of a hub at the center and 16 spokes shaped like fish, all enclosed by a rim carved with patterns of flowers and leaves. The hub is a medallion carved with the lotus flower pattern. Surrounding the Matsya Chakra are the two concentric square frames carved with intricate patterns.
Flanking the Matsya Chakra relief on the left and right sides are the reliefs consisting of swastika patterns.
The image shows a pattern consisting of swastikas carved into the ceiling of the mukhamantapa. As seen in the image, it is situated above a beam carved with the Samudra Manthana story and next to the Matsya Chakra relief (which is not visible). A matching relief with identical swastika patterns is located on the opposite side of the Matsya Chakra, creating visual symmetry and balance in the ceiling design.
The swastika is an auspicious symbol in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. In Sanskrit, the word swastika roughly means “well-being” or “good fortune.”
The four arms of the swastika symbolize several concepts in Indian tradition, including the cyclical movement of the universe and the eternal rhythm of creation and preservation. In the context of this temple, the symbol can be understood as representing the preservation of the universe — a role associated with Vishnu.
With its elegant mantapa-style layout, the cave reflects the sophistication of early Hindu temple architecture carved in stone. Though comparable in size and design to Cave 1, Cave 2 stands out for its finely carved pillars, narrative reliefs of Vishnu’s avatars, and intricately decorated ceiling motifs such as the Matsya Chakra and swastika patterns.
Cave 1 is one of the four rock-cut cave temples carved out of a red sandstone hill near Badami in Karnataka, India. As its name suggests, it is the first cave encountered from the main entrance of the cave complex.
For detailed descriptions of the other three caves, refer to the following pages:
Dated to approximately to 550 CE, Cave 1 is the first of the four rock-cut caves in the Badami hills. It is a mantapa-style temple dedicated to Shiva. Visitors first enter the courtyard of the temple through a flight of steps and then ascend a second flight of steps to enter the interior of the temple.
Facade and Entrance
Ground plan
Excavated from the massive red sandstone boulder at 60 feet above ground level, Cave – 1 has an impressive rectangular façade measuring approximately 70 ft x 20 ft. As seen in the image, the façade is supported by four pillars and approached by a flight of steps. Flanking the façade on either side are two life-size sculptural reliefs, carved into the walls that extend from the façade.
The garbhagriha(sanctum sanctorum) is a small chamber housing the Shivalinga that was carved out of the stone at the rear-side of the cave. Like any traditional mantapa-style temple, there is a sabhamantapa(congregation hall) in front of the garbhagrihaand a mukhamantapa(verandah) in front of the sabhamantapa.
The façade shows the pillars of the mukhamantapaand the staircase leading to it. Inside the mukhamantapaand sabhamantapa, there are more pillars embellished with beautiful carvings. Extending the facade on the right and left are the walls carved with beautiful sculptural reliefs, which are described below.
Nataraja Performing Tandava Nritya
Carved into the right side extension, this large-size sculptural relief depicts Nataraja (Dancing King), a form of Shiva, performing the Tandava Nritya, a vigorous cosmic dance of creation, preservation, and destruction.
Nataraja carved into a wall on the right side of the Cave – 1 facade
Nataraja in this image is standing with an elegant dancing pose on a lotus flower pedestal, and his 18 hands carry a variety of objects, including a trishula(trident) and an ax. His vehicle Nandi is standing behind him, and his son Ganesha is standing to his left. An unidentified figure is seated behind Ganesha.
Dwarapala with Shiva-Parvati and Vrishabha-Kunjara
Dwarapala with Shiva-Parvati and Vrishaba-Kunjara
Carved into the left-side extension, this relief depicts the dwarapala (door-keeper) of Shiva. The dwarapala is holding a trishula (trident) with his right hand. Carved below the dwarapala is Vrishabha-Kunjara (Bull-Elephant), an illusionary sculpture with a single head joined by the torsos of the bull and elephant. It looks like an elephant from one side and a bull from the other side. Carved above the dwarapala is a relief of Shiva and Parvati seated on Nandi, Shiva’s vehicle.
To the right of dwarapala are the pillars of the mukhamantapa and to the left are the flights of steps to Cave 2.
Mukhamantapa: Richly Decorated Porch
As mentioned, the mukhamantapa is the front porch of the cave temple. It is ornate with beautifully carved reliefs on the lateral walls and the ceiling, which are described below.
Ardhanarishvara: Fusion of Shiva and Parvati
Ardhanarishvara and sage Bhringi carved on the right side wall of the mukhamantapa
Carved into the right-side wall of the mukhamantapa, this narrative sculptural relief depicts the story of Ardhanarisvara, a manifestation of Shiva as half man and half woman.
In this relief, Ardhanarishvara, who has man-like features on the right half and woman-like features on the left half, is standing with an elegant tribhanga stance (i.e., body bent in three places, neck, waist, and knee).
While appearing to play a musical instrument, Ardhanarishvara is gently leaning on his vehicle Nandi. Standing with the folded hands (i.e., namaste gesture) behind Nandi is Bhringi, a sage with three legs who appears like a skeleton. Standing to the left of Ardhanarishvara is an unidentified female figure carrying a bowl with her left hand. Flying above Ardhanarishvara are the Vidyadhara couples.
Read the Ardhanarishvara with Sage Bhringi page for a brief explanation of the story behind Shiva’s manifestation of Ardhanarishvara.
Harihara: Fusion of Shiva and Vishnu
Fusion of Shiva and Vishnu as Harihara
Situated on the left lateral wall of the mukhamantapa, this beautifully carved relief depicts Harihara, a symbolical fusion Vishnu and Shiva, two principal deities of the Hindu Trinity.
This composite form is created by combining half the features of Shiva and half those of Vishnu. As a result of this fusion, Harihara is revered by followers of both the Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions
As seen in the image, Harihara is carved with Shiva’s features on the left side and Vishnu’s features on the right side. Shiva’s consort Parvati and his mount Nandi stand beside the Shiva half, while Vishnu’s consort Lakshmi and his mount Garuda appear on the Vishnu half, reinforcing the dual identity of the deity.
A stunningly beautiful sculpture depicting Harihara can be found in one of the devakoshtas of the Durga Temple at Aihole, about 22 miles east of Badami. Like the Badami cave temples, this free-standing temple was built by the Badami Chalukyas and is richly adorned with sculptures and reliefs of comparable artistic excellence.
Coiled Nagaraja
Coiled Nagaraja carved into the ceiling
This intricately carved relief depicts Nagaraja, the mythical king of serpents, with multiple serpent heads and a human head above a torso extending into a spiraling serpent body.
As seen here, the Nagaraja has five serpent heads surrounding his human head. His coiled serpent body—gradually tapering as it spirals outward—fits harmoniously within a finely engraved wheel. Enclosing the wheel is a square panel richly decorated with flower-like patterns.
An inside view showing the garbhagriha entrance and pillars
Shivalinga inside the garbhagriha
The image captures the interior of Cave 1, where a flight of steps leads up to the entrance of the garbhagriha. Inside the sanctum, the shivalinga is not a separately installed structure but is carved from the rock itself, created at the same time this cave temple was excavated.
Notice that the shivalinga rests on a square-shaped yoni, an uncommon feature, as most shivalingas in Indian temples are set onoval-shaped yonis.
Located in Belur, about 137 miles west of Bangalore in Karnataka, India, the Chennakeshava Temple is an architectural masterpiece and engineering marvel. Dedicated to Vishnu, it is one of the most beautiful temples in India, and with its unique style and features, it stands out from all the rest. Built by the Hoysalas in the 12th century, it is a shining example of their ingenuity and engineering skills.
Architecturally classified as a Mantapa style temple – a subclass under the southern Dravida style – the Belur Chennakeshava Temple consists of two main parts, garbhagriha and mantapa. Note that in Indian temples, the mantapa is a covered hall, and the garbhagriha (translated as womb chamber) is its inner sanctum, i.e., the chamber in which the principal deity of the temple resides. The Mantapa style temples can have more than one garbhagrihas. The Chennakeshava Temple has a single garbhagriha, and such temples with a single garbhagriha are known as ekakuta temples.
This page is about the mantapa in front of the garbhagriha, popularly known as the Navaranga because of the style of its design.
Although the Navaranga is relatively small, it is unique in many ways and its appearance, interior as well as exterior, is aesthetically pleasing. The layout of the Navaranga shown below highlights its architectural elements.
Note: The diagram is not drawn to scale. The bracket figures are represented by circles and given a number. The sections of the wall are also labeled to indicate their location. For example, S4 is the fourth section on the south side from the main entrance.
Navaranga Layout and the location of the Bracket Figures
The temple is symmetrical about an east-west axis. In other words, the south-side layout is a mirror image of the north side (and vice versa).
As you can see from the diagram, there are three entrances, the main entrance to the temple is on the east side, and a side entrance each on the north and the south. There is no entrance on the west side because of the location of the garbhagriha.
Navaranga design
Navaranga is a unique element of Hoysala architecture. In Kannada, nava means nine, and ranga means stage or sector, Navaranga means nine sectors. Generally speaking, the Navaranga is a mantapa (covered hall) where people congregate before taking the darshana of the deity.
The Navaranga design is based on a simple geometrical principle of dividing a rectangular area into nine rectangular blocks by throwing a 3 x 3 grid over it. In Indian mythology, cosmic space has eight directions, four cardinal and four inter-cardinal. The blocks placed in eight different directions around the central block of the Navaranga symbolizes cosmic space as experienced by a human being. The builders of this temple tried to capture this concept in stone.
A mantapa built using the Navarnaga design has pillars at the corners of the central section of the 3 x 3 grid and a roof above those pillars to cover the entire space. There can be pillars at the corners of the rest of the sections to support that roof.
The Navaranga design has sub-elements that include sabhamantapa and mukhamantapa. The area covered by the central section (i.e., enclosed by the four middle pillars) is called the sabhamantapa and is typically the largest. The area covered by the sections facing the entrance is called the muhkamantapa. In architectural terms, the sabhamantapa is like a community hall, and the mukhamantapa is like a porch. In the Belur Chennakeshava Temple, the sabhamantapa is also the dance hall.
Exquisite interior
In the Chennakeshava Temple, the central section of the Navaranga is the dance floor, situated in the middle of the hall and enclosed by four pillars at its corners. Besides these four, there are other pillars, 48 in all, inside the Navaranga. Some support the roof, and others are there just for decorative purposes. These pillars have smoothly-cut circular grooves and are partly covered with artwork of beautiful patterns.
Pillars on the northwest side of the Navaranga
The image shows the pillars on the northwest side of the Navaranga. As you can see, each one is different in design. In fact, none of the 48 pillars inside the Navaranga are similar, except for the four at the corners of the dance floor.
These pillars are precisely cut, smooth and polished, and it appears as though they were made using sophisticated machinery, such as modern-day lathes. Because of their appearance, they are called lathe-turned pillars, although nobody is sure how they were built.
Among all the pillars in the Navaranga, the Mohini and Narasimha pillars are highly ornate and the most popular with the visitors.
Mohini pillar
Mohini Pillar – Mohini carved on a pillar inside Navaranga
This sculptural relief depicts Mohini, a female avatar of Vishnu, carved into a pillar located near the dance floor. This stunningly beautiful and intricately carved sculpture was made of black stone (locally known as Krishna Shile), unlike most of the sculptural reliefs, which were made of soft soapstone (locally known as Balapada Kallu).
Note: Moha means Infatuation or crush. Mohini means a seductress.
According to Hindu mythology, Mohini is a by-product of the Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk), which was a collaborative effort by devas (demigods) and asuras (demons) to produce amrita, the nectar of immortality. Once the churning produced amrita, asuras cleverly stole all of it. When Vishnu realized that asuras have amrita, he appeared as a beautiful young woman, a femme fatale, who enticed asuras and successfully grabbed amrita back from them and gave it to the devas.
As you can see from the image, Mohini has a slender and well-proportioned body. She is standing with a graceful stance, with her body slightly curved around the midriff. Her beautiful face has a calm and pleasant facial expression. A crown with an unusually tall cap adorns her head. She is wearing a variety of jewelry, including necklaces, anklets, and armbands. Above her long skirt, which has beautiful patterns, an udiyana (waistband) is wrapped around the waist.
Notice the looped thread hanging across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist. It is known as yajnopavita and is a symbol that indicates that the person wearing it – typically a man – has mastered the Vedas and undergone the Upanayana ceremony. Mohini wearing the yajnopavita does symbolize that she is indeed an avatar of Vishnu, generally depicted as a man.
If you look at Mohini’s toes, you will notice that her second toe is longer than the big toe. In modern medicine, it is considered a deformity, suffered by 20% of the population. This deformity even has a name, i.e., Morton’s Toe. In ancient India, a woman with Morton’s Toes is highly sought after for marriage because of the belief that she would make an ideal wife.
Narasimha pillar
Narasimha PillarNarasimha Pillar – A close up view
This intricately carved pillar is one of the major attractions of the Chennakeshava Temple. It is a testament to the ingenuity of the builders and sculptors of the temple. It is believed that this pillar had a rotating mechanism – like having ball-bearings at the bottom and top – to enable it to rotate about its own axis.
At the bottom, there is a rectangular pedestal on which the circular end of the pillar rests. People were able to rotate the pillar above the circular end. Above the circular end, there is a rectangular base, above which the pillar becomes circular. This circular space is divided into six horizontal layers, each of which has several miniature shrines carved into it.
Above the horizontal layers, the pillar gradually becomes narrower, ending up with two disc-like constructions, and then it evolves into a wide disc. Sitting on top of the wide disc is an inverse conical construction with a polygonal slab on the top. Above this is the capital of the pillar.
The entire pillar space is covered with fine filigree work. The base has reliefs depicting episodes, such as Samudra Manthana, Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, described in ancient Hindu texts and epics. A variety of deities are carved inside and around the miniature shrines.
Highly ornate exterior
The outline of the Navaranga exterior is step-shaped and consists of multiple sections. As mentioned before, there are three entrances, the main entrance on the east side, the south entrance, and the north entrance. There is no entrance on the west side because of the garbhagriha located on that side. Architecturally, the temple is symmetrical about an east-west axis. In other words, the north-side design is a mirror image of the south-side design (and vice-versa). However, no two architectural elements are alike. Between the main entrance and the south/north entrance, there are four sections of walls.
Main entrance – Grand and magnificent
As you can see, the richly decorated facade with perfect symmetry is a delightful sight to watch. The structure faces east and is symmetrical about the east-west axis, although carvings are different on either side.
Main entrance to the Chennakeshava Temple
The Chennakeshava Temple stands on Jagati, a star-shaped four-foot-high platform with an extended terrace surrounding the temple. This terrace acts as the pradakshinpatha, the path on which visitors walk in the clockwise direction to perform circumambulation.
The temple floor is at a higher level than Jagati, so the approach to the door at the main entrance is through two staircases. The first staircase leads to Jagati from the courtyard, and the second to the doorway from Jagati. These staircases are flanked by four mini shrines, two on the courtyard floor and two on the Jagati terrace.
Mini shrines
The image below shows one of the mini shrines, i.e., one to the right of the staircase in the courtyard. Flanking the door are the two pillars with the sculptural reliefs of dwarapalakas carved in the lower half. Attached to each of these pillars is Yali, a mythical creature formed by combining the parts of different animals. As you can see, it is a lion on top of the head of an elephant in this case.
Bhairava inside a mini shrine at the main entrance
Standing inside this mini-shrine is a beautiful statue of Bhairava, who in Hindu mythology is a fierce form of Shiva created by himself to destroy both the internal and external enemies. His sculptural depictions indicate the fierceness of his physical presence.
As you can see from the image, he is standing on top of a slain demon with a dancing pose. Although he is a digambara (i.e., wearing no clothes), he is wearing a variety of jewelry, including necklaces, anklets, armbands and an udiyana (waistband). He is also wearing the yajnopavita, a looped thread sacred to Hindus worn across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist.
With one of his left hands, Bhairava is carrying a severed-head belonging to Brahma. According to a legend, Brahma used to have five heads, four of which facing the cardinal directions and the fifth head gazing upwards. Shiva cut off the fifth head when he realized Brahma became infatuated with a female goddess he created.
Bhairava’s other hands are holding a variety of objects that include a trishula (trident), Shula (a pointed weapon), damaru (drum-like instrument), and pasha (noose).
Hoyasala lanchana (emblem)
Mounted between the shrines and the facade are the sculptures depicting a young man killing the tiger with a lance. See the images below. Both these sculptures are at the end of the flight of steps leading to the main door and placed at an angle to enable visitors to get a good view of them as they enter.
These sculptures represent the lanchana (emblem) of the Hoysala dynasty that ruled most of Karnataka from the 11th to 14th century and is based on a story about the founding of this dynasty, which appears on an inscription attributed to King Vishnuvardhana. Per this inscription, Hoysala is a combination of Hoy and Sala. Hoy in Halegannada (Old Kannada) means hurl, and Sala is the name of the founder of the Hoysala dynasty.
Hoysala emblem on the left side of the main entranceHoysala emblem on the right-side of the main entrance
Here is the legend of Sala in brief:
While Sala was walking with his guru, a Jain sage named Sudatta Muni, a tiger suddenly appeared from nowhere and was about to pounce on his guru. To save his life, his guru yelled “Hoy Sala” at Sala, who was holding a lance at that time. Sala complied immediately by hurling the lance at the tiger and then killing it after a fierce fight, thus saving his guru’s life.
Sala was a boy at the time of this incident, and the news of his bravery soon spread, and he became a legend. He used his fame to found a dynasty, which got its name from the words uttered by his guru.
The narrative sculptures shown above capture the essence of the Hoysala legend. However, the animal appears to be a lion rather than a tiger. The north and south side entrances to the temple also have sculptures depicting Hoysala emblems near the doors.
Manmatha and Rathi on the door jambs
The door at the entrance opens into the Navaranga. A variety of sculptures and sculptural reliefs adorn the facade of the temple at the main entrance.
Rathi at the main entrance
Manmatha at the main entrance
As you can see from the image of the facade, the door jambs and the lintel are beautifully decorated. Carved on the bottom part of the left door jamb is Manmatha and the right door jamb is his wife Rathi. Manmatha, who is also known by many names, including Kamadeva, is a son of Vishnu and the Hindu god of love.
As you can see from the image, Manmatha is standing elegantly with the Tribhanga (bent in three places) stance, holding a sugarcane bow with his left hand and the floral arrows with his right hand. He is wearing a variety of jewelry, including necklaces, anklets, armbands, and udiyana (waistband).
Rathi is also wearing a variety of fine jewelry, including necklaces, anklets, armbands, and udiyana (waistband), and standing elegantly with the Tribhanga stance.
Garuda and Narasimha on the pediment
Garuda and Narasimha on the pediment
Carved on the pediment, which is above the door, is a finely-carved relief of Narasimha, the fourth avatar of Vishnu, carried by his vahana, Garuda, a mythical eagle-like bird with human body. Enclosing this pediment is a creeper disgorged by the Makaras sitting atop the beautifully crafted pilasters that are standing on either side of the doorway. Garuda is also on the roof, flanked by two female figures.
Jālandharas- Perforated stone windows
Known as the jālandhara, the perforated stone window is a unique element of the Dravida style architecture and is a common feature in Chalukya and Hoysala temples. The perforations allow light and air into the mantapa (covered hall). When the temple was built, the Navaranga was an open mantapa, which means there were no jālandharas. King Veera Ballala II (1173 – 1220 CE), a grandson of King Vishnuvardhana, was responsible for covering the Navaranga windows with the jālandharas, likely for security reasons.
The facade of the main entrance has four pillars, two on the left and two on the right of the door. As you can see from the images below, the jālandharas occupy the space between the pillars. Not only do the jālandharas provide ventilation and light, but also make the temple aesthetically pleasing due to the beautiful patterns of the perforations and the carvings around them. Some of the jālandharas are carved with the themes from the Hindu epics and ancient Indian texts, such as the Puranas.
The jālandhara on the left section of the main entrance facade has a sculptural relief depicting the court of King Vishnuvardana and the right section has the relief depicting the court of King Vira Ballala II.
Left section of the main entrance with the jālandhara and bracket figures
As you can see from the image, the diamond-shaped perforations are at the top and bottom of the window. Carved between the perforations are the beautiful sculptural reliefs depicting three distinct themes. The top-level relief depicts Narasimha, the fourth avatar of Vishnu. The reliefs of kneeling Garuda are at the ends. The middle-level relief depicts the āsthāna (royal court) of Vishnuvardhana (1108 – 1152 CE), one of the great kings of the Hoysala dynasty and the builder of this temple. The bottom level has lions carved in between the perforations.
Right section of the main entrance with the jālandhara and bracket figures
This jālandhara is on the right side of the facade. It also has the diamond-shaped perforations and the carvings between the perforations depict three distinct themes. The top-level relief depicts Vishnu standing with his consort Lakshmi, and Hanuman and Garuda are at the ends. The middle-level relief likely depicts the āsthāna (royal court) of King Veera Ballala II (1173 – 1220 CE), a grandson of King Vishnuvardhana and one of the great kings of the Hoysala dynasty. The bottom level has lions carved in between the perforations.
The structure of the southern entrance is similar to the main entrance, but the carvings are different. The lower part of the door jambs have the carvings of Hanuman and Garuda on the left and right side respectively.
There is only one jālandhara, which is on the right side, and it depicts the story of Narasimha, one of the avatars of Vishnu, slaying Hiranyakashipu in a gruesome manner by ripping off his entrails with his bare claws. The left side jālandhara was most likely destroyed, so it is now closed with stones.
North entrance
North entrance to the Chennakeshava Temple in Belur
Just like the southern entrance, the structure of the northern entrance is similar to the main entrance, but the carvings are different. The lower part of the door jambs have the carvings of Jaya and Vijaya, the dwarapalakas of Vishnu. In this entrance also, there is only one jālandhara, which is on the left side, and the right side window is closed with stones. The jālandhara on this entrance doesn’t have a sculptural relief but has a beautiful pattern of square holes.
Exterior wall
The exterior wall surrounding the Navaranga has four lateral sections between the main facade and the south entrance. Likewise, there are four lateral sections between the main facade and the north entrance because of the east-west symmetry.
Separated by pillars, the consecutive lateral sections are at right angles to each other. In addition to the end pillars, there is a pillar in the middle of these lateral sections. Mounted on these pillars just below the eaves are the bracket figures. The jālandharas occupy space between two pillars.
Here are some of the noteworthy sculptural reliefs and carving on the jālandharas:
Maha Vishnu
Vishnu reclining on Adishesha
The jālandhara shown in the image is located on the fourth section of the wall from the main entrance. It has several square holes surrounded by carvings that include beautiful patterns, figures from the Hindu epics, and the main sculptural relief, i.e., reclining Vishnu.
As you can see from the image, the reclining Vishnu relief is finely carved with great details. Vishnu in this relief is portrayed with four hands and is wearing a beautiful dress and a variety of jewelry all over the body. He is lying down in a relaxed manner on Adishesha, the seven-headed king of serpents, who appears to be floating on an ocean. Vishnu’s facial expression also shows his relaxed mood as his wife Lakshmi massages his left foot.
This relief actually depicts the birth of Brahma, the creator of the Universe in Hindu mythology, and is based on an ancient Indian text called Vaishnava Purana. If you look closely at the relief, you can see Brahma is attached to a lotus flower that is emerging from Vishnu’s navel. The lotus flower acts as the umbilical cord of Brahma. Because of his role as the primary creator, Vishnu is referred here as Maha Vishnu (Great Vishnu).
Note: There are differing accounts of Brahma’s creation in other Puranas. For example, in Shiva Purana, Shiva created Vishnu and Brahma.
Avatars of Vishnu on a frieze
Just below the Maha Vishnu jālandhara, there is a frieze with some avatars of Vishnu.
Avatars of Vishnu carved on a frieze on the exterior wall of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple
The frieze depicts six of the ten avatars of Vishnu. Here is the list from left to right:
One of the amazing features of this temple is the placing of the finely carved figures, popularly known as the bracket figures, atop the pillars on the exterior wall just below the eaves. There are 38 of them, and each of them tells a story. Only a couple of them are goddesses, and the rest are people, mostly women.
