Located strategically on the western end of Sabika Hill, the Alcazaba is a fortress used by the Nasrid rulers to defend the Alhambra, the center of power of the Emirate of Granada. Because of its hilltop location, many kingdoms that came before them built fortifications in this site. Experts believe that even a Roman fortification existed here.
Realizing the importance of the strategic location, Mohammed I (1238–1273), the founder of the Nasrid dynasty, decided to build a fortress over a structure that already existed since 889 CE. He made it his residence and oversaw its construction. The version of the fortress he built consisted of three towers, Torre Quebrada (Broken Tower), Torre del Homenaje (Tower of Tribute), and Torre de la Vela (Tower of Vigil), all of which are still standing.
After the fall of the Nasrids, the Christian kingdoms used it for defensive purposes. Later, like all other structures in the Alhambra, it fell into disrepair after long neglect. The major restoration work started in the 19th century and continued until the early 20th century.
Entrance and Plaza de Los Aljibes
The structure shown in the image is the east-facing facade of the wall on the east side. This wall has a small door in the middle used by visitors to enter the fortress. Above the entrance is Torre Quebrada, also known as the Broken Tower, and to its right is the Torre del Homenaje, also known as the Keep. As mentioned before, these two are the original towers of the Alcazaba.
The Alcazaba Entrance and Plaza de Los Aljibes
The open space in front of the eastern wall is known as the Plaza de Los Aljibes (Plaza of the Cisterns) because of the cisterns built there by the Christian kings soon after they took over the Alhambra. When they were no longer useful, public space was created by filling them up and planting some trees and bushes. As you can see from the image, the open space in front of the Alcazaba wall is full of people who are sitting and relaxing.
The Plaza de Los Aljibes has also been a venue for numerous cultural events. The image below shows a plaque written in Spanish embedded into the exterior of the eastern rampart. It lists the important events that took place in the Plaza de Los Aljibes.
A plaque embedded into the Alcazaba wall
Here is the list: 1922 – Concurso de Cante Jondo – The Cante Jondo contest for Flamenco singers 1927 – Autos Sacramentales – These are religious dramas unique to Spain that are played during the feast of Corpus Christi 1952 – Primer Festival de Música y Danza – The First Music and Dance Festival 1976 – XXV Aniversarios del Festival – 25th Anniversary of the Festival held in 1952
The plaque was installed in 1976 to commemorate the 25th Anniversary of the first Music and Dance Festival held in 1952.
Towers on the Eastern Wall
The eastern part of the Alcazaba
The image shows a view of the west-facing facade of the eastern wall as seen from the Torre del Vela. As you can see from the image, the Torre Quebrada is in the middle and Torre del Homenaje to its left. The small semi-circular structure next to the Torre del Homenaje is the Torre del Cubo.
The area in front of the eastern wall is called the Plaza de las Armas (which is explained in the next section). Behind the eastern wall is the Palacio Carlos V (Charles V Palace) and to its right is the Iglesia de Santa María de la Alhambra (Church of St. Mary of the Alhambra). Just below the hill on the far end are the buildings belonging to the Generalife.
Torre del Homenaje
As you can see from the image, Torre del Homenaje is a robust square-shaped tower with battlements (parapet with openings at regular intervals) and merlons (construction that projects upwards) on all four sides of its terrace. This strategically located tower was used for both defensive and offensive purposes. The crenels (space between the merlons) were used for mounting the guns and embrasures (vertical slits) below the battlements used for observation.
Because of its location, Torre del Homenaje provides a vantage point for the surveillance of the Alhambra and the surrounding areas. Mohammed I lived there in the beginning and oversaw the construction of the Alcazaba.
Plaza de las Armas – The Garrison of Alcazaba
The Plaza de las Armas – The Garrison of Alcazaba
Although Plaza de las Armas means Plaza of the Weapons, it actually refers to an interior area of the fortress consisting of military quarters and storage facilities for weapons and other supplies needed for the defense of the Alhambra.
The ruins consisting of the foundation walls that you see in the image belonged to the Barrio Castrense, which is a Nasrid-era residential area consisting of houses occupied by the military commanders and soldiers stationed in the Alcazaba. As you can see, each house has an entrance, a central hall and other rooms, and a lavatory. One of the houses is larger than the others, and it most-likely belonged to the head of the garrison. It also has a small pool at the center. It is believed that Mohammed I, the founder of the Nasrid dynasty, moved his residence from the Torre del Homanaje to this house after its construction.
Torre de la Vela – The Tower of Vigil
The Torre de la Vela and Plaza de las Armas
Located on the western part of the Alcazaba, Torre de la Vela, also known as the Watch Tower, is an iconic structure that provides a 360-degree panoramic view of the surrounding areas. As mentioned before, it is one of the three towers built by Mohammed I.
With four floors and a terrace, it is the tallest tower in the Alcazaba. It also has three underground floors and a dungeon. The iconic bell tower on the terrace was not part of the original construction. The Christian kings, who took over the Alhambra, installed the bell to warn residents living in the surrounding areas of attacks and other emergencies. The tower got its name because of this bell. Velar in Spanish means to keep vigil. So, the Torre de la Vela is a tower that keeps vigil.
The Torre de la Vela terrace with a bell and flags
The tower sustained severe damages due to a variety of catastrophic events, including an explosion and earthquake, occurred during the post Nasrid period. It included the ripping off of the original battlements and breaching of part of the tower.
The image below shows a spectacular view of the snow-clad Sierra Nevada Mountains, as seen from the terrace of the Torre de la Vela. In Spanish, Sierra means mountain range, and Nevada means snowfall. As the name suggests, a lot of snow falls in these mountains. Because of the abundance of snow, they have become a popular tourist attraction, especially with skiing enthusiasts. .
Sierra Nevada Mountains – A view from the Torre de la Vela
Located between the Medina (i.e., city) and the Nasrid Palaces, the area covered by the present Gardens of the Partal was mostly residential during the Nasrid era. Because of the convenient location, the people who worked in the palaces lived in this area. Medina, which had shops, baths, and mosques, was nearby and met their daily needs.
After the Christian kings took over the Alhambra, the houses and other buildings in this area fell into disrepair. A major restoration of the Alhambra took place from 1923 to 1936, during which period this area became an archaeological site. Excavations of this site led to the discovery of numerous Moorish houses and even a palace attributed to Yusuf III. The gardens in this area are a modern construction and were part of the restoration that in the 1930s.
The Gardens of the Partal consists of few buildings near the Nasrid Palaces and the gardens built on the slopes north of the upper Alhambra. The two main buildings in this area are 1. Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies) 2. Oratorio del Partal (Oratory of the Partal).
Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies)
Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies)
Built sometime between 1302 and 1309 CE during the reign of Muhammed III, the Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies), which used to be called the Partal, is one of the oldest buildings in the Alhambra. Partal means portico in Arabic. The Gardens of Partal got its name because of this building.
It had many modifications and renovations done to it over the years, but eventually, it was neglected and fell into disrepair. Fortunately, it underwent a significant restoration in 1924, and the beautiful building you see now is the result of that restoration.
As you can see from the image, the Tower of the Ladies consists of a tower, a hall, and an open portico. Resting on the marble pillars of the portico are the five arches. Only the middle arch, which is higher than the other four, belonged to the original building.
The ceiling of the porticoAn interior view
The image on the left shows the ceiling of the portico of the Tower of the Ladies. As you can see from the image, the ceiling has several repetitive geometrical patterns, including many recessed octagons, arranged symmetrically with a deeply-recessed multi-angled niche at the center.
The beautifully decorated wooden ceiling shown in the image is a delight to watch and is a great example of Mudéjar art, a style of decoration originated in Moorish Spain and is a fusion of Islamic and Christian art. There are many rooms in Nasrid Palaces and Generalife with ceilings decorated with Mudéjar art.
The image on the right shows the hall behind the portico of the Tower of the Ladies. As you can see from the image, it offers a great view of the city of Granada.
Oratorio del Partal
Interior of the Oratory showing the mihrab
The image shows an interior view of the Oratorio del Partal (Oratory of the Partal), a small building next to the Tower of the Ladies. Attributed to Yusef I (1333-1354), the seventh and one of the most prominent ruler of the Nasrid dynasty, the Oratory was a house of prayer, which was used by the sultan for namaz (prayer). It was first restored in the 1930s, then again in 2017 to the present form.
As you can see from the image, the highly decorated wall has a niche, known as mihrab, oriented towards the Kaaba of Mecca. The upper part of the mihrab has a beautiful arch surrounded by a square border carved with Islamic calligraphy. Beautifully carved arabesques fill the space between the arch and this border. The wall above the mihrab has two decorative windows, and surrounding it are arabesques and Islamic calligraphy.
Note: Arabesque is a repetitive pattern of foliage or geometrical designs found in decorations of Islamic architecture.
Also seen in the image is part of the ceiling, which is ornate with finely-carved wooden panels. It is also an example of Mudéjar art mentioned above.
Gardens
Built on the slopes north of the upper Alhambra and east of the Nasrid Palaces, the gardens consist of several terraces with reflecting pools, fountains, flower beds, and nicely trimmed hedges of bushes enclosing plants and trees.
On the right, a low brick wall with a white plaque is part of the remnants of Palacio de Yusuf III (Yusuf III Palace). The archaeological excavation in the 1930s led to the discovery of this palace. Based on the type of construction and the artifacts found in the site, experts attributed it to Yusuf III (1408-1417), the thirteenth ruler of the Nasrid dynasty. However, experts also believe that a much older construction attributed to Muhammad II (1273-1302), the second ruler, existed in this site, and the Yusuf III Palace was a modified version of that building.
The image on the right shows a terrace on the north side of the gardens. As you can see from the image, the Tower of the Ladies is at the far end.
A west side view of the Gardens of the PartalA north side view of the Gardens of the Partal
Known for the grandeur and unique Islamic art, the Palacios Nazaríes (Nasrid Palaces) is a complex of interconnected palaces built by the Nasrids, a powerful dynasty originated in North African and ruled the Emirate of Granada over a period of 260 years. Besides using the palaces as their residences, the Nasrid rulers used them to conduct the state business, including the administration and meeting with the local and foreign dignitaries.
Located on the northern end of Sabika Hill, the Nasrid Palaces are the most popular tourist attractions in the Alhambra. The opulence and lavishness of the palaces make visitors feel like they are in a paradise on earth.
The Nasrid Palaces require tickets to visit, and depending on the season, you may have to buy them well in advance. Besides the Nasrid Palaces, the Alhambra has many impressive monuments, including the Alcazaba, Partal Gardens, and Medina. The Generalife is not considered part of the Alhambra because it is located on a different hill on the other side of the ravine separating them. However, most tourists visit it after the Alhambra tour because of the easy access from the Alhambra. The Nasrid Palaces visit lasts about two hours, and you can complete the entire Alhambra and Generalife tours in half a day.
While the exterior of the palaces appears to be an unimpressive jumble of buildings (See the image), the well-designed and exquisitely decorated interiors are impressive works of art.
An outer view of the Nasrid Palaces
The palaces consist of highly decorated rooms arranged in a quadrangular fashion with a court in front. Some courts have fountains with running water, and the others have reflecting pools or gardens. The rooms have finely carved ceilings, some with mocárabes (Read Note 1 below). The doorways and windows are arched, and the walls around them are embellished with arabesques (Read Note 2 below) and Islamic calligraphy.
The palaces evolved gradually over the years during the Nasrid rule. During this era, many rooms were added, extended, and removed. Once the Christian rulers took over the Alhambra, they too remodeled and renovated the palaces, but fortunately maintained its original Moorish character by keeping the basic structures, and most of its architectural elements, and beautiful decorations.
The Maxuar palace is one of the first palaces to be built in the Alhambra and changed the most. The building of the original place took place during the reign of Ismail I (1314 – 1325), the fifth ruler of the Nasrid dynasty, who usurped the direct descendant of the founder and created the second Nasrid dynasty. Later, a significant rebuilding of this palace occurred during the reign of Muhammad V (1354–1359, 1362–1391), the eighth ruler of the Nasrid dynasty.
During the Christian era, An explosion in 1590 destroyed most of the western part. As a result, there is very little left from the original palace. Nobody is sure how the original building looked like; What you see now is a small portion of the original on the eastern part.
The Maxuar Palace is where the visitors enter the Nasrid Palaces. The images below show a part of the main hall. Supporting the ceiling of this hall are the four pillars, each of which is surmounted by the corbels at the top. The image on the right shows the wall and the corbels on the eastern part of this hall. As you can see, the beam and wall are ornate with arabesques and Islamic calligraphy. The beautifully decorated wooden ceiling is from the Christian era and is a great example of Mudéjar art (Read Note 3).
The Maxuar HallA section of the wall on the east side of the Maxuar hall
Palacio Comares – Comares Palace
The construction of this palace began during the reign of Yousef I (1332-1354), the seventh ruler of the Nasrid dynasty, and completed by his son Mohammed V (1354–1359, 1362–1391). Once completed, it became the official residence of the emirs.
The Gilded Room is located next to the Maxuar Palace.
The Gilded room wall The Gilded room ceiling
As you can see from the image on the left, the walls are ornate with arabesques and Islamic calligraphy. The room has doorways with arches and finely-carved decorative windows above the arches. The Nasrid Palaces have many rooms in this style of decoration.
As you can see from the image on the right, the wooden ceiling is recessed and engraved with beautiful gold-colored patterns. The room got its name because of these gold-colored decorations.
The Gilded Room ceiling is an excellent example of Mudéjar art, which is a blend of Islamic and Christian art created mainly by Christian artisans.
Patio de los Arrayanes – Court of Myrtles
The Court of the Myrtles -The north corridor view The Court of the Myrtles – The south corridor view
The Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles) is a quadrangular court with a pool surrounded by well-trimmed hedges of myrtle bushes (hence the name Court of the Myrtles). Situated at the northern and southern and ends of the pool are the fountains, and behind the fountains are the corridors, each with seven exquisitely embellished arches.
The image on the left shows a view of the north corridor with the Comares Tower behind it. The image on the right shows a view the south corridor with a gallery on the upper floor, which has seven arches, just like the floor below. As you can see, the middle arch of the corridors is higher than the other six.
Located west of the Court of the Myrtles is the Gilded Room (Cuarto Dorado), and east is the Palace of the Lions. The visitors enter the Court of the Myrtles through the Gilded Room and walk east to enter the Hall of the Mocarabes of the Palace of the Lions.
Palacio de los Leones – Palace of the Lions
Built by Mohammed V (1362 – 1391), the Palace of the Lions is the most impressive part of the Nasrid Palaces. The palace building reached its crescendo during his rule.
Map of the Palace of of the Lions and recommended path for the visitors
It lies between the Comares Palace and the Partal. In the center is the Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions), which is a rectangular court surrounded by four halls.
This map shows the recommended path for the visitors to navigate in the Palace of the Lions. It is on display at the Court of the Lions corridor.
Commissioned by the Mohammed V and built in the second part of the 14th century, the Court of the Lions is a masterpiece of Moorish architecture in Spain.
As you can see from the image, the Court of the Lions is a rectangular court surrounded by arched corridors, behind which are the four famous halls of the Nasrid Palaces. Located west of the court is the Hall of the Mocárabes, north is the Hall of the Abencerrajes, east is the Hall of the Kings, and south is the Hall of Two Sisters.
At the center is a fountain built with sculptures of 12 lions and a dodecagon-shaped (12-sided polygon) basin is resting above them. The Court of the Lions got its name because of these 12 lions.
Sala de los Mocárabes – Hall of the Mocárabes
The Hall of the Mocarabes
Located west of the Court of the Lions, the Sala de los Mocárabes is a hall with an oval-shaped ceiling previously covered with a dome of the Mocárabes. It got its name because of this dome, which was dismantled after an explosion in the 16th century. Check the map of the Palace of the Lions for its location.
Although this hall is beautifully decorated, it is less glamorous than the other three halls that surround the Court of the Lions . The visitors to the Court of the Lions enter this hall before walking to the other halls in the Palace of the Lions.
The image shows a part of the ceiling depicting the court of arms of the Nasrid dynasty.
Sala de los Abencerrajes – Hall of the Abencerrajes
The Hall of the Abencerrajes – A sidewall with two beautifully decorated arches
Located north of the Court of the Lions, the Hall of the Abencerrajes is ornate with beautiful geometric designs on its walls and ceiling. It has a central hall and a corridor with two archways. The image shows a sidewall with two beautifully decorated arches on the doorway leading to a corridor.
The Hall of the Abencerrajes owes its name to the legend of the Abencerrajes, a warrior clan from North Africa. According to this legend, 30 of them were assassinated in this room by the orders of the Sultan of Granada, who suspected a member of the clan was having an affair with one of the ladies of the royal family. However, there is no historical or archaeological evidence to support the occurrence of this event. Read more on this legend: Cypress Tree and the Legend of the Abencerrajes
Hall of the Abencerrajes – A view of the ceiling
The view above the central hall is especially stunning. As you can see from the image, the ceiling looks like a honeycomb constructed with small and colorful cells of different geometric shapes, including triangles and rectangles. Such honeycomb structures are called dome of the mocárabes (similar to muqarnas of Persian origin). Below the roof and covering the entire hall is a deck whose balustrades form a hexadecagon (a polygon with 16 sides).
Sala de los Reyes – Hall of the Kings
The Hall of the Kings – A view of the ceiling
Located east of the Court of the Lions, Sala de los Reyes (Hall of the Kings) is one of the most interesting halls in the Nasrid Palaces, mainly because of the three paintings on its ceiling (see the images below). It is also known as the Justice Hall.
At the center of this rectangular-shaped hall is the main room flanked by two bedrooms on the sides. Connecting the main hall to the bedrooms are the exquisitely decorated double arch doors.
A corridor separates this hall and the Court the Lions, and the three beautifully decorated arched doorways connect this corridor to the hall.
The image above shows a view of the ceiling of the Hall of the Kings. It looks like a honeycomb constructed with small and colorful cells of different geometric shapes, including triangles and rectangles.
Everyday life Fighting and hunting scenesTen Nasrid Kings Paintings on the ceiling of the Palace of the Lions
The images show the three paintings on the ceiling of the Hall of the Kings. These were painted on a sheepskin leather sheet and attached to an oval-shaped wooden vault of the ceiling.
The lower painting depicts the first ten kings of the Nasrid dynasty. The Hall of the Kings got its name because of the this painting. The other two painting depict everyday life and fighting and hunting scenes Although the paintings depict the legends of the kings of the Nasrid dynasty, they were most likely painted by the Christian painters during the reign of Mohammed VII (1395 – 1410 CE) or Yusuf III (1410 – 1424 CE).
Sala de las Dos Hermanas – Hall of Two Sisters
The Hall of Two Sisters – Part of the ceiling and wall
Located south of the Court of the Lions, the Hall of Two Sisters is ornate with beautiful geometric designs on its walls and ceiling.
Just like the Hall of Abencerrajas, the ceiling of this hall has the dome of the mocárabes, however, the design is different. The small colorful cells are organized to form concentric geometrical shapes.
Below the roof and covering the entire hall is a deck whose balustrades form an octagon. The wall is also highly decorated, and there is a niche in the wall with a beautiful arch.
The Hall of Two Sisters – A view of the ceiling
As you can see from the image, the outermost shape is almost a circle and enclosed within this circle is a hexadecagon (a polygon with 16 sides). Enclosed within this hexadecagon is an octagon (a polygon with 8 sides), and within this octagon, there are many concentric shapes. Below the roof and covering the entire hall is a deck whose balustrades form an octagon. It is a delight to the eyes to view these mesmerizing geometric designs.
Mirador de Lindaraja – The Viewing Windows of Lindaraja
The Sala de los Ajimeces and Mirador de Lindaraja
The image shows a beautiful view captured from the Hall of Two Sisters. At the far end of the image is the Mirador de Lindaraja (Mirador de Daraxa), and at the near end is the Sala de los Ajimeces (Hall of the Ajimeces). These two halls are located east of the Court of the Lions.
As you can see from the image, a beautifully decorated arched door from the Sala de los Ajimeces leads to the Mirador de Lindaraja. Just like the other halls in these palaces, the walls are filled with arabesques and Islamic calligraphy, and the ceiling is decorated with mocárabes.
With its two beautifully decorated arched windows, the Mirador de Lindaraja provides a spectacular view of the gardens outside the Patio of the Lindaraja. However, the mirador (lookout) is now closed to the visitors.
The Patio de Lindaraja (Court de Lindaraja) – also known as the Jardines de Daraxa (Garden of Daraxa) – is a square-shaped patio enclosing a lovely garden on all four sides. Each side has a portico with arched columns made of marble and a gallery upstairs. This image was captured from one of the galleries.
The Patio de Lindaraja
At the center of the garden is a beautiful marble fountain, which dates back to 1626, and the basin was first at the Patio del Cuarto Dorado (Patio of the Gilded Room). The garden has several pentagon-shaped bushes and tall trees, including cypress, orange, and acacia.
Notes
Note 1: Mocárabes are unique to Islamic architecture in Andalucian Spain and are similar to Muqarnas (which is of Persian origin). They are decorative elements consisting of recurring geometrical patterns, which appear like honeycombs. Typically used in vaults, mocárabes are a symbolic representation of the cave where Prophet Muhammad received his revelation.
Note 2. Arabesque is a repetitive pattern of foliage or geometrical designs found in decorations of Islamic architecture.
Note 3: The term Mudéjar refers to the Moors who stayed in the Iberian Peninsula after the Christian retook the land ruled by the Moors.
Iceland is a country like no other. It is is an island with a spectacular but strange landscape. With a population of 350,000, it is one of the smallest countries in the world. While Iceland is smaller in terms of size and population, it is not small in terms of achievement. It prides itself of having a Nobel Prize winner. It even qualified for the FIFA World Cup Soccer finals in 2018. Although Iceland is located near the Arctic Circle, the weather is not brutally cold. An underwater ocean current known as Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean keeps it warmer. Mid-Atlantic ridge passes through Iceland dividing it into two parts, which drift away from each other at a rate of 2 cm per year.
Reykjavik
A view of the city of Reykjavik from the Pearl
The capital of Iceland is Reykjavik where the majority of the Icelandic population lives here. It is also the hub for tourists who visit Iceland.
Hallgrímskirkja
Hallgrímskirkja – Lutheran Parish Church in Reykjavik
Located in central Reykjavik, Hallgrímskirkja church is an iconic landmark whose tower is visible from different parts of the city. It was named after Hallgrímur Pétursson, a well-known Icelandic poet who lived in the 17th century.
As you can see from the image, the facade of this magnificent building is unique and eye-catching. It was designed by Guðjón Samúelsson, who got his inspiration for this building from Iceland’s unique landscape, which includes glaciers and lava fields. The construction began in 1945, and it took 41 years to complete. The statue of Leifur Eiríksson, a Viking explorer who visited the shores North America 500 years before Columbus, stands in front of the church. Hallgrímskirkja is not only a popular tourist attraction but also an active Lutheran parish church.
Sun Voyager – Sculpture of a Viking Ship
Sun Voyager – Model Viking ship
Located on the shoreline of Reykjavik, this beautiful sculpture resembling a Viking ship is called the Sun Voyager (Solfar). Sculpted by Jón Gunnar Árnason of Iceland, it won the competition held in 1986 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the founding of Reykjavik. It was placed in the current location in 1989.
Harpa – Modern concert hall
Harpa – Modern concert hall in Reykjavik
Opened in 2011, Harpa has become a cultural center in Northern Europe and an iconic landmark of Reykjavik. It is located by the harbor and near another Reykjavik iconic landmark, the Sun Voyager.
The Iceland Symphony Orchestra, Icelandic Opera and Reykjavik Big Band hold concerts in this hall every year. It also attracts musicians and bands from all over the world. The building was designed by the Danish firm Henning Larsen Architects. Harpa also serves as a conference center.
Northern Lights
The sky in Iceland is often lit with the Northern Lights (also known as Aurora Borealis), which is a result of some phenomenon occurring in the sun. When electronic storms occur in the sun, they throw into space a massive amount of charged particles, which are caught by the earth magnetic field at the poles. During this process, the charged particles collide with the gases on the earth’s atmosphere resulting in a spectacular display of multi-colored lights as shown in the images below.
Waterfalls
Iceland is home to several spectacular waterfalls.
Gullfoss Waterfall
Gullfoss, which means Golden Waterfall in the Icelandic language, is one of the most visited attractions in Iceland. Located 70 miles northeast of Reykjavik, Gullfoss is on the Hvítá River’s path. The Hvítá River gets its water from the nearby glaciers.
As you can see from the image, Gullfoss is a two-drop waterfall. The first drop is shorter and calmer, whereas the second drop is higher and fiercer. The water from the second drop falls into the Gullfossgjúfur canyon with an enormous force. With a height of 230 feet, the second drop is an awe-inspiring sight.
Gullfoss Waterfall: Two dropsGullfoss Waterfall: Water falling into the canyon
Faxi Waterfall
Faxi is a small waterfall compared to Gullfoss. It is located on the Tungufljót River’s path near Skálholt Cathedral.
Faxi Waterfall
Geothermal Activities
Iceland is home a lot of geothermal activities and has two types geothermal areas, which are:
Hot areas : These are high temperature areas. Areas near volcanoes come under these category.
Cold areas: The areas outside the volcanic zone come under these category.
Strokkur Geyser
Located in the Geysir geothermal area of Iceland, the Strokkur Geyser is a spectacular sight during its eruption, which happens regularly at every 8 to 10 minutes. During eruption, it spews hot water to a height of 25 to 35 meters in the air.
Strokkur means churn in the Icelandic language. It is one of the few active geysers in the world that erupt at regular intervals. Some of the other famous geysers are Pohutu in Rotorua, New Zealand and Old Faithful in the Yellow Stone Park, USA. The video shows three continuous eruptions, which happens once in a way.
trokkur Geyser
Currency
The Icelandic currency is Icelandic Króna orkrónur in the plural. The ISO symbol is ISK. The approximate exchange rate is 120 krónur for the US Dollar.
Mycenae is the site where a mysterious late bronze-age civilization rose from nowhere around 1900 BCE, flourished mostly in the Peloponnese peninsula, and then disappeared suddenly around 1100 BCE. Whatever little we know about the Mycenaean civilization is fascinating.The Mycenaean were a loose confederation of city-states, each of which was ruled by a king. The center of the Mycenaean civilization was the city-state of Mycenae. According to a myth, Perseus, a son of Zeus and Danae, founded Mycenae. Mycenae was also the capital of legendary King Agamemnon, who defeated Troy. Homer refers to the Mycenaean people as Achaeans.
Mycenae is the site where a mysterious late bronze-age civilization rose from nowhere around 1900 BCE, flourished mostly in the Peloponnese peninsula, and then disappeared suddenly around 1100 BCE. Whatever little we know about the Mycenaean civilization is fascinating.
The Mycenaean kingdoms were a loose confederation of city-states, each of which was ruled by a king. The center of the Mycenaean civilization was the city-state of Mycenae. According to a myth, Perseus, a son of Zeus and Danae, founded Mycenae. Mycenae was also the capital of legendary King Agamemnon, who defeated Troy. Homer refers to the Mycenaean people as Achaeans.
The Mycenaeans were believed to be Indo-European people, who migrated from the north and established settlements in Peloponnese. Although the Mycenaeans eventually conquered Minoans of Crete, they had an amicable relationship with the Minoans for a long time. Many aspects of the Mycenaean culture was influenced by the Minoans. When the Mycenaean disappeared abruptly in 1100 BCE, Greece plunged into dark ages.
Location
Mycenae is located on the Peloponnese peninsula 75 miles southwest of Athens, Greece.
Archaeological Site
The was site was discovered in the 1870s by the German businessman and amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann who was already famous for discovering the city of Troy.
The site is on a hill and the ruins are visible from a distance.
A view of the surroundings from the Mycenae citadelA view from the top of the Mycenae citadel
Views from the Mycenae citadel
Cyclopean Wall
A massive wall known as the Cyclopean Wall surrounded the Mycenae citadel. Legend has it that Perseus, the founder of Mycenae, employed Cyclopes, mythical giants from Asia, to build this wall to protect the citadel. The Cyclopean Wall owes its name to them.
The image shows a section of the Cyclopean wall, built with irregularly shaped stones of different sizes without using mortar or cement. As you can see, the stones fit perfectly. Considered an engineering marvel, it has withstood the ravages of time, including earthquakes. This wall was the model for polygonal walls built later in Greece. The Polygonal Wall in Delphi is an example.
The cyclopean wall at the Mycenae citadel
Lion Gate
Built around 13th century BCE, the Lion Gate is the entrance to the citadel at Mycenae and attached to it is the Cyclopean Wall. The sculpture above the lintel of the gate has a pillar flanked by two headless lions. It is believed that the original sculpture had the heads of lions made of metal.
Lion Gate
Pausanias (110 -180 CE), a Greek traveler and historian, wrote about the Lion Gate in his book, Descriptions of Greece, which was used to identify Mycenae citadel by the archaeologists.
Grave Circle A
Grave Circle A is the site of a cemetery located inside the Mycenae citadel. The cemetery is enclosed by two rows of circular walls formed by stone slabs. When this site was excavated, six shaft graves with the bodies of 19 people, including men, women, and children were found. Each grave had a mound and stelae. Also found in the grave are funerary objects, including a golden death mask, gold and silver cups, rings, buttons, bracelets, and daggers.
Grave Circle AGrave Circle AGrave Circle A layout
Grave Circle A
Heinrich Schliemann, who discovered the cemetery in the 1870s, believed that the legendary King Agamemnon was buried there. However, the site is dated 17th or 16th century BCE, which is well before the time of King Agamemnon. Experts are not sure who was buried in this site but believe that the bodies belong to high-ranking people from the Mycenae civilization, probably the royalty.
Mycenae Palace
The Mycenae palace is located at the highest point on the Acropolis. The ruins visible today belong to the building constructed in the 13th century BCE. Only the foundations and floor paving of some rooms have survived. The archaeological evidence suggests that the site likely had many variations of the building before the current one.
The palace complex had a large courtyard and a megaron (meeting hall). The megaron consisted of a portico, prodomos (anteroom or open vestibule), and the main hall, whose principal space (known as domos) consisted of a circular hearth and four columns supporting the roof. See the model of the palace below.
People gathered in the megaron to conduct palace business. It was destroyed, most likely by fire, in the late 13th century BCE, and was rebuilt in the 12th century.
Ruins of the Mycenae PalaceMycenae Palace WallLayout of the Mycenae Palace
Mycenae palace
Cistern
A large underground cistern supplied water to the Mycenae citadel. The image below shows the entrance to the tunnel that led to a large underground cistern which received water collected from a natural spring through underground aqueducts.
Entrance to the underground cisternA cistern
Mycenae cistern
North Gate
North gate at the Mycenae citadel
The north gate is the second gate of the citadel, and the path from this gate led to the palace megaron. Built around 1250 BCE, the north gate had double wooden doors with a sliding bolt to lock them.
Agamemnon Tomb (Treasury of Atreus)
Located on the Panagitsa hill near the Mycenae citadel and dated between 1350 and 1330 BCE, the Agamemnon Tomb is a massive dome-like structure with an entrance similar to the Lion Gate. It owes its name to its discoverer Heinrich Schliemann, who assumed that the tomb was built for King Agamemnon of the Trojan war fame. However, there is no evidence to suggest that the tomb indeed belonged to him. In fact, it was built well before his time.
The Agamemnon Tomb is a bee-hive type of a tomb. Also known as the Tholos tombs, the bee-hive tombs were prevalent in the Peloponnese Peninsula in the late bronze age. They get their name because of the dome-structure and their resemblance to the beehive.
This monument was referred to as Treasury of Atreus by the Greek traveler Pausanias who visited this site in the 2nd century CE.
Entrance to the tomb
Entrance to the Tomb of Agamemnon
It has a remarkable entrance with a long passageway and a doorway similar to the Lions Gate in design. The lintel above the door is a massive stone weighing about 120 tons. The triangular space above the lintel is empty but likely housed some sculptures.
Passageway
Passageway wall of the entrance to the Tomb of Agamemnon
The passageway is long with a wall on each side. The shape of most of the stones on the wall is rectangular, but there are some polygonal stones as well. The stones were cut precisely to fit the wall perfectly, and despite the differences in their sizes and shapes, it appears no mortar was used to bind them. As you can see in the image below, some of the stones on these walls are massive.
Chamber
The chamber of the Agamemnon Tomb is a dome with a diameter of 14.5 meters and a height of 13 meters. Considering the time period in which it was built, the construction of the dome was considered a great engineering feat.
Roof of Agamemnon TombInterior of Tomb of Agamemnon
The Minoan civilization is named after Minos, the legendary King of Crete. It is the oldest civilization in Europe, which flourished from 2600 to 1100 BCE in Crete and nearby islands. The island of Crete is at the crossroads of three continents: Asia, Europe, and Africa. The Minoan civilization flourished because they were skilled seafarers and were able to trade with the cities in these three continents. It is contemporary with the Indus Valley civilization that was flourishing in the Indian sub-continent, but no evidence of trade between them has been found.
Minoan Civilization
The Minoan civilization is named after Minos, the legendary King of Crete. It is the oldest civilization in Europe, which flourished from 2600 to 1100 BCE in Crete and nearby islands.
The island of Crete is at the crossroads of three continents: Asia, Europe, and Africa. The Minoan civilization flourished because they were skilled seafarers and were able to trade with the cities in these three continents. It is contemporary with the Indus Valley civilization that was flourishing in the Indian sub-continent, but no evidence of trade between them has been found.
Language and Writing System
The language spoken by the Minoans was believed to be closer to Sanskrit than Greek. The early Minoans used the hieroglyphic writing system, but most of their writing was in Linear A, which is yet to be deciphered. However, the similar script (i.e., Linear B) was used by the Mycenaean culture has been deciphered, which led the experts to believe that the language spoken by the Minoans was a lot different from the one spoken by the Greeks.
Religion
Because Linear A script is yet to be deciphered, very little is known about the Minoan religion and its practices. Minoans seemed to have worshiped female deities and their religious symbols included sacred horns of the bull and double-axe.
Human migration and travelers from Asia, Egypt and Mediterranean had a strong influence on the Minoan religion. For the same reason, the Minoan society was multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, therefore, it is believed that the Minoans practiced different religions.
Bull Cult
Interactions with other cultures had a lot of influence on Minoan religious practices, especially bull worship. Many cultures contemporary with Minoans worshiped the bull because it was considered a symbol of fertility.
Because the bull was part of Minoan religious ceremonies, experts believe that the bull cult was one of their religions.
Legend of Minotaur
According to Greek mythology, Minos the King of Crete lived in the Palace at Knossos where he had built a labyrinth to confine Minotaur, a creature with the head of a bull and body of a man.
Minotaur is an offspring of Minos’s wife and a bull, which was sent by Poseidon at the request of Minos during the power struggle with his brothers. Minotaur had a head of a bull and body of a man and devoured humans for food. King Minos ordered his architect to build a labyrinth in order to confine Minotaur.
A legend tells how the Minotaur was killed. According to this legend, King Minos’s son was killed by jealous Athenians when he won the Pan Athenian games in Athens. To avenge his son’s death, King Minos sent a huge naval force to wage a war against Athenians and defeated them. The defeated Athenians made a deal with King Minos to send able-bodied young men and women from Athens to Knossos to be devoured by Minotaur. After many young men were killed, an Athenian named Theseus killed Minotaur and set Athens free.
Akrotiri
Akrotiri is a major archaeological site on the island of Santorini where buildings and artifacts belonging to the Minoan civilization were found. Akrotiri was a city that had well laid out roads, houses, storage places, and sophisticated water management systems. It was most likely a trading center.
Although Akrotiri did not have a palace complex like the Palace at Knossos, artifacts recovered from this site were similar to ones from Crete. These included numerous frescoes, Pithoi jars and pottery, and some of them were well-preserved because the site was covered by volcanic ash.
Collapse of the Minoan Civilization
A massive volcanic eruption occurred in 1646 BCE at the height of Minoan civilization destroyed the Island of Thera, which was located just 60 miles from Crete. Experts believe this cataclysmic event most likely contributed to the demise of the Minoan civilization. The volcano resulted in earthquakes and a massive tsunami that swept away the Palace at Knossos and other Minoan settlements in Crete. Although the Minoan civilization survived for another 50 years, weakened Minoans could not defend an invasion by the Mycenaeans, who eventually occupied Crete and ended the Minoan civilization in 1420 BCE.
Located on the Elis region of the Peloponnese peninsula,Olympia in ancient times was a sanctuary famous for starting the tradition of the Olympic Games. The first games were held in 776 BCE, and they were continued to be held every four years until the 4th century CE. The modern Olympic Games were modeled after these games.
In addition to the Olympic Games, Olympia was known for two magnificent temples: Temple of Zeus and Temple of Hera. The statue of Zeus, which was housed in the Temple of Zeus, is considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
The Sanctuary at Olympia is also known as the Sanctuary of Altis. There are a lot of similarities between the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi and the Sanctuary of Altis. Like Delphi, Olympia was a religious sanctuary and housed temples, votive buildings, statues, treasuries, and administrative buildings. Both the sanctuaries held games every four years. Unlike Delphi, which is on a mountain slope, Olympia is on a level space.
The excavation of Olympia started in 1829 by the French and continued by the Germans in 1875. The excavation was then taken up by the Greek Government in the 20th century and is still continuing.
The archaeological site of Olympia currently has ruins of ancient structures, some of which are restored. The Olympia Archaeological Museum is located near the site and has on display many precious artifacts recovered from the site.
Location
Olympia is north of the Alpheios River and south of Mount Kronos. The Kladeos River, a tributary of Alpheios, runs through this area.
Olympic Games
In ancient Greece, the Olympic Games was one of the four in Panhellenic Games held at an interval of four years at Olympia. The other three were: Pythian Games, Nemean Games, and Isthmian Games. The Olympic Games was the most important one and used to measure time in years. An Olympiad is a period of four years in which the Olympic Games was held in year one, Nemean Games and Isthmian Games were held in year two and four and Pythian Games was held in year three.
The Olympic Games started as a festival honoring Zeus in which a series of competitions, including foot race, javelin throw, wrestling and chariot race, were held between the representatives of Greek city-states. As the Olympic Games gained popularity, it lost its religious character and became an athletic and social event. Because Greek city-states frequently fought among themselves, an Olympic truce was declared to temporarily stop all warfare during the games.
The winners were crowned with olive leaf wreaths and winning the competition was very prestigious for a city-state. Only men with proven Greek ancestry were allowed to compete in the games. Women were neither allowed to compete nor watch the events. Politics became part of the games as city-states asserted their dominance over their rivals when they won the competitions.
Olympic Stadium
The ancient stadium at Olympia is located on the east side of the sanctuary and had the capacity to hold about 45,000 spectators.
Entrance
Arch at the entrance to the ancient Olympic Games stadium
The stadium had an arched entrance called Krypte on the western side of the stadium facing the sanctuary. Only the athletes and the officials were allowed to use this entrance. This entrance was built around the late 3rd century BCE.
The images below show the arched way at the Olympia archaeological site.
Race Track
The race track had stone markers at the starting and ending lines. The length of the track between the starting and ending markers is 192.27 meters and the width is 28.50 meters. A stone ridge ran along the perimeter of the track.
Stadium with the race track where the ancient Olympic Games were held
Starting line marker embedded on the race track
Ancient race track
The stadium had permanent stone seats only for the judges and officials. It may have had wooden benches for the spectators.
Temple of Zeus
As the name suggests, this massive temple was built to honor Zeus, the king of the Greek gods. The construction of this temple began in 472 BCE and completed in 457 BCE, and was the main attraction of Olympia for about 800 years.
Ruins of Temple of Zeus
The remaining column of Temple of Zeus
The ruins of the Temple of Zeus
Architecture
The Temple of Zeus is a Doric style building with east-west orientation with the following dimensions: height 68 feet, width 95 and length 230 feet. The temple had three areas, a porch in the front, similar arrangement in the back and a cella in the middle. The temple stood on a platform with three unequal steps.
It had 6 columns each on the front and back and 13 columns on each side. Located above the columns were Doric friezes with 12 metophes. On the front and back of the temple, there were pediments located on top of the frieze. The lion-headed water sprouts ran along the temple. The figures on the pediments were identified by Pausanias, the Greek historian who visited the Temple of Zeus in the 2nd century BCE.
East Pediment
According to Pausanias, the east pediment on the Temple of Zeus depicted the chariot race that was about to begin between Oenomaos and Pelops. Oenomaos was the king of Pisa and Pelops was a suitor of Hippodameia, the daughter of Oenomaos.
At the center of the pediment is Zeus observing the chariot race, and was flanked by two heroes. The figures at the two ends represent the two rivers of Olympia, Alpheios and Kladeos.
The images below show the statues that were restored from the fragments excavated near the Temple of Zeus and are now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.
Sculptures from the east pediment of Temple of Zeus at Olympia
Statues from the east pediment of the Temple of Zeus
Statues of an old seer and two spectators from the eastern pediment of Temple of Zeus
Remnants of east pediment statues
West Pediment
The theme of the west pediment is the fight between the Lapiths and Centaurs. The restored structures portray the abduction of the Lapith women by the Centaurs.
At the center of this pediment is Apollo who is flanked by two heroes, Theseus and Peirithoos.
Sculptures on the west pediment of Temple of Zeus portraying the fight between the Centaurs and Lapiths
Statue of Apollo in the middle of the west pediment of Temple of Zeus at Olympia
Sculptures on the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus portraying the fight between the Centaurs and Lapiths
Remnants of west pediment statues
Water sprouts
Statue of Zeus
A huge chryselephantine (made of ivory and gold) statue of Zeus stood inside the Temple of Zeus. The statue of Zeus is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although no fragments of this statue were ever discovered, many ancient coins of that period show different aspects of it. The Greek historian Pausanias, who visited Olympia in the 2nd century CE, also describe the statue.
The statue had Zeus seated on a throne carved with elaborate decorations that included the statues of other Greek gods Apollo, Artemis, and Nike. It was 42 feet high and 21 feet wide.
The statue was sculpted by the famous Athenian sculptor Phidias whose workshop was discovered near the temple. He started its construction in 432 BCE and took 12 years to complete it.
The statue was taken to Constantinople (currently Istanbul, Turkey) for safekeeping in 392 CE, but ironically destroyed in a fire 60 years later.
Destruction
The Byzantine Emperor Theodosius ordered it to be closed in 426 CE because of pagan practices. The temple was burnt and what was left was later destroyed in an earthquake in the 6th century.
Temple of Hera
Ruins of the Temple of Hera
Built around 590 BCE, this Doric style temple is one of the oldest temples in Greece and is located on the north-west corner of Altis. It is dedicated to Hera, the wife of Zeus and the queen of Greek gods.
The Temple of Hera was built more than a century before the construction of the Temple of Zeus during the period when God was considered a woman. The temple had three distinct areas: Pronaos (Front Porch), Cella (Inner Chamber), and Opisthodomos (Back Porch).
It had 6 columns each on the front and back and 16 column on each side. The columns were wooden initially but were gradually replaced by columns made from stones.
Olympia: Statue of female head excavated near the Temple of Hera
According to Pausanias, who visited this site in the 2nd century CE, the cella had the statue of Hera on the throne and the statue of Zeus standing next to her.
The image shows the head of a woman excavated near the Temple of Hera. Experts believe that the head belongs to the statue of Hera erected inside the temple.
The opisthodomos of the temple had a Chest of Kypselos, which was made of wood, ivory, and gold and decorated with mythological scenes.
The temple was remodeled many times. The Romans used it as a museum to stores treasures of the sanctuary. The marble statue of Hermes carrying the infant Dionysus sculpted by Praxiteles was one of them.
Zeus Holding Ganymedes
Statue of Zeus holding Ganymede
The statue depicting Zeus carrying Ganymedes is on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum. It is made of terracotta and dated between 480 and 470 BCE, and is most likely an acroterion (apex or end piece of a pediment) of a temple.
Philippeion
Philippeionwas built by Philip II, the king of Macedonia and the father of Alexander the Great, to commemorate his victory over Thebans and Athenians in the Battle of Chaeronea in 335 BCE. Since Philip II died two years after the construction of this monument started, his son Alexander the Great most likely completed it.
Philippeion – a monument built by the father of Alexander the Great at the sanctuary of Olympia, Greece
This majestic monument was circular-shaped with a diameter of 15.3 meters and had two concentric rings of columns. The outer ring had 18 Ionic style columns, and the inner ring had Corinthian style half-columns. The roof was made of marble with a bronze poppy head. Inside the monument, it housed the statues of Philip II and his family that included his wife, parents, and son Alexander the Great.
Votive Offerings
As the Olympic Games became more popular, the sanctuary of Olympia became very prominent resulting in people from various city-states sending votive offerings to Olympia. The site was adorned with statues in different places. Just like Delphi, Olympia also had treasuries built by various city-states to deposit their votive offerings.
Nike of Paionios
A beautifully sculpted marble statue of Nike stood on a pillar near the Temple of Zeus. According to the inscription on the base of this statue, it was dedicated by the Messenians and Naupactians to commemorate their victory against the Lacedaemonians (Spartans ?) in the Peloponnesian war. The statue was sculpted using Parian marble by Paionois of Mendi around 421 BCE. It was sculpted to give an impression that Nike the goddess of victory was triumphantly descending from Mount Olympos.
Nike of Paionios on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
Nike of Paionios on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
The statue of Nike on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
The statue is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum and was restored from the fragments excavated near the Temple of Zeus.
Hermes of Praxiteles
The statue of Hermes carrying infant Dionysos was sculpted by the famous sculptor Praxiteles. This masterpiece is dated 330 BCE and was a votive offering placed on opisthodomos of the Temple of Hera.
Statue of Hermes of Praxiteles
Statue of Hermes of Praxiteles – Rear View
The statue of Hermes on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
Treasury of the Megarians
Pediment from the Treasury of the Megarians on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
Roman Period
Romans added many new buildings to the sanctuary, including Nymphaion, and continue the tradition of the Olympic Games. During the Roman period, the games were open to all citizens of the Roman Empire.
Nymphaeum (Nymphaion)
Located near the Temple of Hera, Nymphaion (also known as the Exedra of Herodes Atticus) was a magnificent two-story semi-circular building that housed a fountain. It was built in 150 CE by Herodes Atticus, a Greek aristocrat who became a Roman senator, to honor of his wife Regilla. Placed inside the niches on the walls of this building are the statues that included the statues of Roman Emperors Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Pius, and Herodes Atticus and his family members. At each end of the building, there were two circular Naiskos (small temples).
Ruins of Nymphaion (Nymphaeum) in Olympia, Greece
Naiskos at the Nymphaion
Ruins of Nymphaion
This building served as the water reservoir for the sanctuary during the Roman period. An aqueduct brought the water from a spring a few miles away and stored in a semi-circular basin located in front of the building. The water was then distributed to the rest of the sanctuary through pipes.
Marble bull – A votive offering at the Nymphaion
The image shows the marble statue of a bull that was a votive offering at the Nymphaion and is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.
Roman Era Statues
During the Roman era, statues of emperors and other important people of the empire were erected in Metroon, which was a temple of the mother goddess. The statues were eventually moved to the Temple of Hera for safe keeping. During the excavation, many of these statues were discovered inside the ruins of the Temple of Hera. These statues were restored and put on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum. Here are some of them:
Agrippina Minor
Statue of Agrippina Minor – Emperor Nero’s mother
The statue of Agrippina Minor, who was Emperor Nero’s mother,was discovered on a wall in the Temple of Hera.
Poppaea Sabina
Statue of Poppaea Sabina – Emperor Nero’s second wife
Poppaea Sabina (30 -65 CE) was the second wife of Emperor Nero. This statue was also discovered on a wall in the Temple of Hera.
Emperor Hadrian
Statue of Emperor Hadrian
The statue of Roman Emperor Hadrian (117 – 138 CE) was discovered in the Temple of Hera and is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.
As a supporter and admirer of Greece, Emperor Hadrian toured Greece in 124 CE and committed vast resources for numerous engineering projects, including aqueducts, and rebuilding temples and monuments throughout Greece.
Notice the tunic worn by Hadrian in the statue. His finely carved tunic symbolizes fusion of Greek and Roman cultures and represents his world-view.
At the center of the tunic is Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom and war, standing on top of a she-wolf with two sucklings, and flanked by two figures with wings believed to represent Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Above the wolf and to the right of Athena is an Owl and to the left is a snake standing upright. Goddess Athena represents Greece and the she-wolf suckling the twins, Romulus and Remus, symbolizes Rome as it is based on the legend of the founding of Rome.
Located on the slopes of Mount Parnassos in central Greece, Delphi was best known for its oracle in ancient times. Ancient Greeks treated this site with great reverence as it overlooks a spectacular and awe-inspiring landscape. Delphi was unique in that it was not a city-state but a religious center that was administered by an alliance of Greek city-states. Although Greek city-states fought among themselves, they were united in developing this site.
Fascinated by the mystery of the oracle, people have been flocking to Delphi from all over the world for more than a century. The archaeological site of Delphi, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, provides a glimpse of its past glory. The ruins at this site include the Temple of Apollo, Treasury of the Athenians, a theater and stadium.
Location
History
In ancient times, Greeks considered Delphi as the navel of the earth. According to Greek mythology, Zeus wanted to find the navel of the earth, which in other words the center of the earth. To accomplish this task he sent two eagles, one to the east and the other to the west. The eagles crossed their paths at Delphi making it the navel of the earth. The name Delphi is derived from delphys which in archaic Greek means womb and refers to the womb of the Mother Earth.
The earliest known human settlement in Delphi dates back to the Neolithic period (around 4000 BCE). Later, the Mycenaean civilization established a settlement here in the 2nd millennium BCE.
Delphi was initially famous for the worship of goddess Gaia (Mother Earth), and a temple existed for this goddess at the site of the Temple of Apollo.
Later the cult of Apollo took roots in Delphi replacing the worship of Gaia. This cult grew out of a legend based on Apollo’s slaying of an evil python who was a son of Gaia and was roaming Mount Parnassos creating havoc.
The building of the Sanctuary of Apollo started in the 8th century BCE and reached its peak in the 6th century BCE when it became the most important religious center for Greeks.
Delphi was not a city-state, but a protectorate of Amphictyonia (Amphictyonic League), an alliance of Greek tribes from Sterea (south-central Greece) and Thessaly, which controlled it from 7th to 4th century BCE. The Delphi area was considered autonomous. The Amphictyonic League administered it and chose the priests of the Temple of Apollo.
However, in 356 BCE, an alliance of Phocians, Athenians, and Spartans took control of this sanctuary. Their control was short-lived because King Philip of Macedonia defeated them and handed over the site back to the Amphictyonia alliance. He interfered again in 338 BCE and took control of the site himself.
Roman Period
The Roman Empire took control of this site in 191 BCE, but let the religious ceremonies, including the practice of foretelling by the oracle, to continue. Many high-ranking Romans regularly consulted the oracle. Emperor Hadrian was believed to have visited Delphi and consulted the oracle. However, the Roman general Sulla plundered this site in 86 BCE to finance his wars in Greece.
Decline
Although the practice of foretelling by the oracle continued for a couple of centuries, it gradually started losing its prominence. The final death knell came from the Christians who wanted to end the pagan practices. In 394 BCE, Byzantine Emperor Theodosius issued an edict abolishing the oracle and other pagan practices at Delphi and other sanctuaries all over the Roman empire. Even after the oracle was abolished, Delphi continued to thrive for another three centuries. As Christianity became prominent, Christians started flourishing in this area, and there was even a Basilica. Delphi was eventually abandoned in 6th or 7th century CE.
Pythian Games
Starting 586 BCE, Delphi hosted the Pythian Games every four years to celebrate Apollo’s victory, and it was second only to the Olympic Games in importance. The winner of a game received the laurels picked from the Temple of Apollo. They continued until 424 CE.
Sanctuary of Apollo
The Sanctuary of Apollo includes the Temple of Apollo and the Sacred Way which is the path from the entrance to this temple. Above the temple, there is a theater and a stadium where the Pythian Games were held.
Sacred Way
The Sacred Way was the path leading from the entrance to the Sanctuary of the Apollo to the Temple of the Apollo. This sanctuary was visited by the people from various Greek states to ask questions of the oracle.
Because of the slope, the path was zigzag with a few stairs in some places but was well paved. The Greek city-states competed against each other by building structures on either side of the path. Many city-states had treasury buildings which were used as the place to deposit their votive offerings by their citizens.
Roman Agora
A typical ancient Greek city-state had an agora, which means meeting place in Greek. It is equivalent to a modern city-square or plaza. Because the people gathered in the agora, merchants set up shops in and around the agora to sell a variety of goods and services. Because of these shops, the agora became synonymous with the marketplace.
Once the Romans took control of Delphi, they remodeled the existing agora sometime in the 4th century CE. It became known as the Roman Agora because the remodeled buildings appeared more Roman than Greek.
The Roman Agora is the first stop on the Sacred Way to the Temple of Apollo. Just like any other temples scenes around the world, this is where the pilgrims bought the votive offerings and proceeded to the temple.
Roman Agora at Delphi
Temple of Apollo
The Temple of Apollo was the most important and dominant structure in the Sanctuary of Apollo. According to a Greek myth, this is where the Omphalos (navel of the earth) stone was found.
The Temple of Apollo was built and remodeled many times at the same site. The first temple was built by the legendary architects Trofonios and Agamedes in the 7th century and was destroyed by a fire in 548 BCE. It was replaced in 525 BCE by a bigger temple, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 373 BCE. The third temple was built with almost the same plan and dimensions of its predecessor in 320 BCE.
The Temple of ApolloSurviving columns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi
Oracle of Delphi
Although the oracle existed during the Gaia times, it became prominent after the cult of Apollo gained importance. The Oracle of Apollo was a priestess called Pythia whom the people believed was a mouthpiece of Apollo.
The Oracle sat on a tripod in the inner sanctum of the temple inhaling vapors emanating from a fissure in front of her. According to a myth, the body of the python slain by Apollo fell into this fissure and vapors emanated from the decomposing body of the python. Intoxicated by vapors, Sybil the first oracle went into a trance and answered questions and foretold the future.
Young women from the nearby villages were chosen as priestesses of the temple and one of them would officiate as the oracle. Answers given by the oracle were vague and cryptic, but the priests at the Temple of Apollo interpreted them for the people.
Architecture
The Temple of Apollo is Doric in style with 6 columns on the front and 15 on the sides.
The east pediment depicted a scene when Apollo when he arrived with sister Artemis and mother Leto. The west pediment depicted Gigantomachy, which isthe story of the giant’s battle with Olympian gods. The sculptures on the pediment used marble from the island of Paros, and Athenian sculptors Praxias and Androsthenes helped to build them. Only a few fragments of the pediments survived and are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.
The seat of the oracle was located inside the cella (inner chamber) called the adyton which had the statue of Apollo and Omphalos. Like many other Greek temples, an eternal flame burned in the hestia (hearth) located at the rear of the cella.
The walls of the pronaos (vestibule of the temple) had inscriptions of saying attributed to the seven Greek sages. These sayings include “know thyself” and “everything in moderation. “
Omphalos
In the ancient Greek language, the word Omphalos means “naval.” The Omphalos of Delphi refers to a conical-shaped stone that represents the navel of the earth.
According to Pausanias, a Greek historian who visited Delphi in the second century CE, a copy of Omphalos draped with wreaths was kept near the seat of oracle in the inner chamber (adyton) of the Temple of Apollo. Ancient Greeks believed that this is where Apollo killed the evil python, and Omphalos was used to communicate directly with the gods.
Experts believe that many copies of Omphalos existed in the Sanctuary of Apollo. The archaeological site of Delphi has one of the stones, and another one is in the Delphi Archaeological Museum. See the images below.
Omphalos stone at the Delphi archaeological siteOmphalos of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.
Omphalos
Dancers of Delphi
Displayed at the Delphi Archaeological Museum, the Dancers of Delphi is a sculpture with three female figures, fragments of which were found on the terraces in the east and northeast part of the Temple of Apollo in 1894. See the images below.
The Dancers of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological MuseumThe Dancers of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
The Dancers of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Experts believe that this sculpture was located in the adyton (inner sanctum) of the Temple of Apollo and a part of the column that was holding the Omphalos stone. It was likely that there was a tripod-like structure – probably made of bronze – between the heads of the dances and the Omphalos stone.
Halos
A circular space near the Temple of Apollo.
Altar of Chiots
Built by the people of Aegean island of Chios in the 4th century BCE, the Alter of Chiots became the main altar of the 3rd temple that was rebuilt in 330 BCE.
This monument is located in front of the Temple of Apollo and there is a large open space between the altar and the temple. An ancient staircase leads to this altar and to the temple from the Sacred Way. The altar was made of black marble except for the base and cornice which were made of white marble.
Base of the Altar of Chiots
Polygonal Wall
The Polygonal Wall was built as a retaining wall to support the terrace that houses the temple platform. This was introduced during the construction of the second temple in 548 BCE.
Some stones on the Polygonal Wall have detailed inscriptions that were carved sometime in 2nd or 3rd century BCE. These inscriptions mostly mention the emancipation of slaves.
Polygonal Wall
The polygonal walls get their name from the polygonal shapes of the stones that were used to build the wall. Notice that the Polygonal Wall shown in the image has some curved stones in addition to the polygonal stones.
The polygonal walls are considered an engineering marvel because of the way in which they were built. The walls did not make use of mortar or cement because the stones with irregular shapes and sizes that made up the wall fit perfectly.
It appears as though the stones were precisely cut and polished using sophisticated machinery. However, there is no evidence to suggest that such machinery or tools existed in ancient times. In all likelihood, engineers in those days must have devised some ingenious techniques to build such walls using primitive tools.
One of the main advantages of polygonal walls is that they withstand earthquakes very well, as evidenced in Delphi, which suffered numerous earthquakes for the past 2500 years. The polygonal walls in Delphi have some similarities with the polygonal walls used in the structures built by the Incas in Cusco and Saksaywaman. These places are also located on the severe earthquake zone, and the Inca structures seem to have withstood earthquakes very well.
Stoa of the Athenians
The Stoa of the Athenians was built against the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo. This structure was used to house the trophies won by the Athenians in their naval victories. The façade originally had seven columns, only four of them have survived. The roof was believed to be wooden. It was built between 510 and 470 BCE.
Stoa of the Athenians
Kings of Argos Monument
The city-state of Argos, which had many kings before it became a democracy, built this monument to house the statues of its kings. It is a semi-circular structure with niches to hold bronze statues. While the plan was to house twenty statues, the city-state of Argos was able to erect only ten statues.
King of Argos monument
Silver Bull
The image shows the statue of a bull reconstructed from the fragments of silver sheets excavated at the Sanctuary of Apollo. It is on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. The base of the statue is located somewhere near the entrance of the Sacred Way.
Silver Bull on display at the Delphi Museum
Naxian Sphinx
Located below the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo, Naxian Sphinx was a votive offering at the Temple of Apollo by the people of Naxos, an island belonging to the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea. It is a statue of the mythical creature that has the head of a woman, the body of a lion and wings of an eagle. In ancient times, sphinxes were considered guardians of tombs and sanctuaries. The statue was constructed in 560 BCE and was made from Naxian marble. It stood on a free-standing tall Ionic column that was 12 meters high and was an imposing sight at that time.
Naxian Sphinx on display at the Delphi Archaeological MuseumNaxian Sphinx on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Marble statue of Naxian Sphinx on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Pillar of King Prusias II of Bithynia
Pillar of King Prusias II of Bithynia
Situated on the northeast entrance of the Temple of Apollo, this monument was erected to honor King Prusias II of Bithynia in 182 BCE. The pillar is 9.7 meters high and the statue of the king on the horseback once stood on top of it.
This monument was an offering to the Temple of Apollo by Bithynia, a kingdom of Thracian tribe Bithyni, and located in the northwest region of Asia Minor (currently in the Anatolia province of Turkey).
Treasuries
Along the Sacred Way, there were many treasuries built by the individual city-states to help their citizens store the votive offerings. They included the Treasury of the Athenians, Treasury of the Siphnians, Treasury of the Boeotians and Treasury of the Sikyonians.
Treasury of the Athenians
The Treasury of the Athenians was built by the city-state of Athens to commemorate the Battle of Marathon in 496 BCE. The purpose of this building was to house the offerings brought by Athenians to be offered the Temple of Apollo.
Treasury of the Athenians
The site was excavated by the French School of Athens, which reconstructed the monument at the site in 1903-1906. The architectural style of this building is the Doric Order. The metopes on this building are replicas, and the originals (mostly fragments) are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.
Note: A metophe is a rectangular architectural element that is placed in the space between two sets of vertical tablets on a Doric frieze.
Treasury of the Siphnians
The Treasury of the Siphnians was built around 525 BCE by the city-state of Siphnos, which is also an island in the Aegean Sea. The people of Siphnos accumulated wealth by mining silver and gold. They used tithe of the profits from mining to build this monument.
Just like the Treasure of the Athenians, the purpose of this building was to house the votive offerings brought by the people of Siphnos.
Treasury of the Siphnians
Siphnians Treasury caryatid on display at the Delphi Museum
The architecture style of this building is the Ionic Order. It had rich decorations including caryatids (female figures) as supporting columns of structures. See the image below. It had pediments on all the four sides, each of which is adorned with beautiful sculptures depicting stories from Greek mythology.
Votive Offerings
Twins of Argos
The two life-sized marble statues of two brothers – Cleobis and Biton – were votive offerings at the Sanctuary of Apollo by the city of Argos which is located in the Argolis region of Peloponnese.
Both the statues and one of the bases with inscription were found near the Treasury of the Athenians in 1893. They were dated approximately 580 BCE.
Statues of Argos twins on display at the Delphi Archaeological MuseumArgos twins on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Statues of Argos Twins on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Charioteer of Delphi
Bronze statue of a charioteer on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
The Charioteer of Delphi is a life-size bronze statue of a young man on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. This masterpiece was part of a bigger sculpture containing a chariot, fours horses and two charioteers (one of them is this statue) and was found intact in the Sanctuary of Apollo in 1896.
This was a votive offering to the Temple of Apollo in 474 BCE to honor the victory in a chariot race in the Pythian Games.
Theater
The theater is located above the Temple of Apollo and is well-preserved. It was built sometime in the 4th century BCE and underwent remodeling several times.
Delphi Theater
During the Pythian Games, this theater hosted music competitions, and during important festivals, it hosted plays and other theatrical performances.
Known as the birthplace of democracy, Athens is a city with a long and glorious past, which started as early as 1400 BCE as an important center of the Mycenaean civilization. Athens is where western civilization took roots. At its heyday, Athens was the leader of the Greek city-states. It was home to many great philosophers, including Socrates (469 – 399 BCE), Aristotle (427 – 347 BCE) and Plato (384 – 322 BCE). In addition to philosophy, Athens was at the forefront of arts, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.
After Athens declined as the powerhouse of the Greek city-states, it was ruled by Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. Many iconic structures of Greece that include Parthenon are in Athens. The ruins of ancient monuments that are spread all over the city speak of different eras in Athens’ history.
Location
Athens is also called Athina in Greek. It is located on mainland Greece.
Modern Athens
Athens is the capital of Greece and a cosmopolitan city. It also has one of the biggest ports in Europe. The port of Piraeus is part of greater Athens and handles large passenger traffic.
Syntagma Square
This is the central square of Athens where the Greek Parliament building is located.
Parliament Building
The current Greek Parliament building was built in 1836 as the royal palace of King Otto I, the first king of modern Greece.
Greek Parliament building at Athens
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is in the front of the Greek Parliament building and guarded by the members of the presidential guards.
Changing Guard at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
National Gardens
The Greek National Gardens is located behind the Parliament building.
Monument to Lord Byron at the National Gardens, Athens
Trees at the National Gardens
Athens Olympics Games
The modern Olympic Games are modeled after the ancient Olympic Games that were held in Olympia for many centuries in ancient times. The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens on April 6, 1896, and held again there in 2004.
Panathenaic Stadium
The Panathenaic Stadium is one of the main attractions of Athens. The original stadium at this site was built in 330 BCE and was remodeled in 144 CE by Herodus Atticus, an Athenian aristocrat who rose became a Roman Senator. This site was excavated in 1869 and a new stadium was reconstructed at the same site.
Athens: Panathenaic Stadium
It was used for the opening and closing ceremonies of the first modern Olympic Games. This stadium was remodeled for the 2004 Olympic Games. This venue was the finishing point for the men’s and women’s Marathon races. In addition, the archery competition was held there. It currently being used for a variety of purposes, including as a venue to transfer the Olympic flame to the host nation.
Views of the City
The city of Athens contains many hills, including Acropolis, Philopappu and Lycabettus hills. The views of Athens with these hills are spectacular.
A view of Athens showing Mount Lycabettus
A view of Athens showing the Philopappos (Philopappu) monument
A view of Athens showing the Hadrian’s Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus
Views of Athens
Ancient Athens
Acropolis
The Acropolis is a citadel located on a flat-topped rock in the city of Athens. It is about 500 ft above sea level and has a dominating presence in Athens.
Acropolis overlooking the city of Athens
The Acropolis was inhabited since the Neolithic period (6th century BCE). It is believed that it had a Mycenaean Megaroon when Athens was part of the Mycenaean Empire.
The Acropolis has ruins of many iconic structures of Greece, including the Parthenon.
Parthenon
The Parthenon is known all over the world as an iconic symbol of ancient Greece and western civilization. It is also regarded as a symbol of democracy.
Located at the center of Acropolis, the Parthenon was built as a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin) by Pericles. It replaced the existing temple of Athena, which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE. The construction of Parthenon began in 447 BCE and ended in 438 BCE. A gold and ivory statue of Athena stood in the cella (inner sanctum) of the temple. In addition to being a temple of goddess Athena, it also served as a treasury.
Parthenon – A monument located on Athens Acropolis
Destruction
Over the years, the Parthenon was plundered, destroyed and converted many times. The Germanic tribes destroyed inner a part of Parthenon in the 3rd or 4th century. When Athens came under the Roman Empire, the Parthenon was converted to a church in the 6th century by early Christians and was called the church of Holy Wisdom. In the 11th century, it was dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After the Frankish crusaders took over Athens, it became the Church of Notre Dame in 1204. When the Ottoman Empire took control of Athens in 1458, the Parthenon was converted to a mosque and a minaret was added to it.
A large part of Parthenon was destroyed during the bombardment of Athens by Venetians in 1687. During the war with the Republic of Venice, the Ottoman Empire stored ammunition inside the Parthenon. A cannonball fired by the Venetian troops led by the Venetian general Francisco Morosini hit the Parthenon directly igniting the stored ammunition and resulting in the destruction of precious sculptures and part of the structure.
One of the biggest damage to the Parthenon was caused by then English Ambassador to Constantinople, Thomas Bruce (7th Earl of Elgin), who in 1801- 1802 bribed Turkish authorities and sawed away many priceless sculptures and transported them to England. Today most of them are on display in the British Museum in London.
The Parthenon is now a UNESCO World Heritage site and is currently being restored by the Greek Government.
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
This theater was built in 161 CE on the southwest slopes of Acropolis by Herodes Atticus to honor his wife Aspacia Anna Regilla. Herodes Atticus was an aristocratic Athenian who became a Roman Senator. He was responsible for constructing many buildings in Greece and Athens in particular.
The Odeon was used as a music theater and could seat about 5000 people. It was destroyed by a Germanic tribe in 267 CE.
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
The facade of Odeon of Herodes Atticus
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
Erechtheion
Built on a slope on the north side of Acropolis in Athens, Greece, the Erechtheion, a temple built by the famous sculptor Phidias and dedicated to the legendary King Erichthonius, is second only to the Parthenon in importance. Its complex ground plan has porches on the east, north and south sides. The east side porch is dedicated to Athena and the west side to Poseidon. The construction of the original monument began in 420 BCE and ended in 406 BCE. After Roman General Sulla sacked it 80 BCE, it underwent many modifications in the subsequent years.
Porch of the Caryatids
Erechtheion
The image shows the south side porch of the Erechtheion. As you can see from the image, the porch has six caryatids, which are replicas. The original caryatids were moved to the museums for safekeeping. Five of them are now in the new Acropolis Museum in Athens, and the sixth, which was taken by Lord Elgin in the 19th century to decorate his mansion in Scotland, is in the British Museum in London.
Original Caryatid on display at the Acropolis Museum
Note: A Caryatid in Greek architecture is a female sculpture that serves as a column that helps to support a structure.
A recent study suggests that this building was referred to as the Parthenon in ancient texts, instead of the structure we now identify as the Parthenon, because it fits the name and description in those texts. Note that Parthenon means a room for virgins in Greek.
Theatre of Dionysus
As the name suggests, this theater was dedicated to Dionysus, the god of plays and wine. Situated on the foothills of Acropolis, this theater in its current form could seat as many as 17,000 people. The theater was in existence since 6th century BCE but underwent many modifications. It is believed to be the birthplace of Greek tragedy.
Theatre of Dionysus
Arch of Hadrian (Hadrian’s Gate)
This is a Roman-era monument honoring Roman Emperor Hadrian.
Hadrian’s Arch
Temple of Olympian Zeus
The Temple of Olympian Zeus is located near the Arch of Hadrian, and as the name suggests it is dedicated to Olympian Zeus. The construction of this temple started in the 6th century BCE but completed much later by the Roman Emperor Hadrian.
The original temple when completed had 104 columns, out which only 16 survived.
Temple of Olympian Zeus
Hadrian’s Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus
Ancient Agora
In ancient Greek cities, the Agora was like the public square where people assembled to hear announcements, engage in political discourses, watch theatrical performances and athletic contests, and participate in religious activities. Because the Agora was a meeting place of people, it also served as a market place.
The Ancient Agora of Athens was the center of Athenian democracy where the political power was exercised. Starting from the 6th century BCE, the Agora gradually expanded to contain numerous public buildings, fountains, temples, and statues and attained the final form in the 2nd century CE. The image below shows the map of the Ancient Agora when it reached this form.
Ancient Agora and surroundings
Temple of Hephaestus (Hēphaistos)
Hephaestus is the Greek god of fire and metal works and was worshiped by craftsmen and artisans in ancient Greece, especially in Athens.
The Temple of Hephaestus is one of the well-preserved buildings in Athens. It has two facades, one facing east and the other west. The east facade faces the Agora.
Temple of Hephaestus
Temple of Hephaestus – Interior
Temple of Hephaestus
The temple was converted to the church of St George in the 7th century. This is also the place where the first of king of modern Greece, King Otto, was officially received.
Byzantine Period
As Athens became Christian, the pagan traditions of Athens disappeared. Ancient buildings such as Parthenon were converted to churches and many new churches were built. During this period Athens lost its character, and the grandeur and splendor with which Greeks built their buildings were gone forever.
Church of the Holy Apostles
This church was built in the 11th century but was altered many times. It was restored to the current form in 1956.
Located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Crete is the biggest island in the Aegean Sea. This is where the Minoan civilization, a mysterious culture that was well ahead of their time, thrived more than 4000 years ago.
Crete has many archaeological sites belonging to the Minoan civilization, including palaces at the following four sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Zakros. The Palace at Knossos is the most famous among them.
Knossos
Knossos is believed to the oldest city in Europe and is the place of the legendary King Minos.
Discovery and Excavation
Although Minos Kalokairinos, a merchant of Heraklion, discovered Knossos in 1878, the credit for bringing world’s attention to Knossos goes to Arthur Evans, a British archaeologist who started excavation in 1900 and continued until 1934 with some interruptions during World War I. He and his team retrieved a large number of artifacts and restored and reconstructed parts of the palace. Some of the reconstruction was the creation of Arthur Evans imagination. Based on his findings, he published a four-volume book work titled The Palace of Minos at Knossos.
The team led by Arthur Evans also discovered tablets inscribed two different scripts, which he named them as Linear A and Linear B. While they appear similar, the contents of the inscriptions belong to two entirely different languages. The language of Linear A is Minoan, which is probably close to Sanskrit, whereas the language of Linear B is Mycenaean, which is close to Greek.
Because of its closeness to Greek, Linear B inscriptions have been mostly deciphered. The Linear B tablets were inscribed later than Linear A tablets. It appears Linear B descended from Linear A and the Mycenaean used it even after the collapse of the Minoan civilization.
Palace at Knossos
The Knossos Palace was a massive complex of structures that included royal quarters, religious halls and storage rooms. There were two versions of palaces at Knossos. An earthquake destroyed the first palace (1900 – 1700 BCE ). A new palace (1700 – 1450 BCE) was then built at the same site.
Knossos had maze-like structures with some buildings having multiple floors. See the images below.
Ruins of Palace at Knossos A multi-storied structure at the Knossos Palace
Ruins of the Palace of Knossos
The entire complex was designed with a very sophisticated water management system to supply fresh water to the residential quarters and an underground sewage system to flush out the waste. The water was available even on the upper floors of multi-storied buildings.
Horns of Consecration
As mentioned earlier, the bull played an important role in Minoan religion and everyday life. Many buildings in the Knossos site had the bull horns like structures on the top. Arthur Evans called them “Horns of Consecration.”
The image below shows the reconstructed structure of bull horns.
Horns of Consecration representing sacred bull horns
The Horns of Consecration symbols were found on Minoan seals as well.
Hall with Columns and Frescoes
The ruins have many reconstructed halls with wooden columns painted black and red as shown in the image below. Arthur Evans used archaeological facts and some imagination to reconstruct the hall, and he did so by using modern materials.
Unlike the columns in Greek buildings elsewhere, the Minoan columns are wider at the top and narrower at the bottom.
Reconstructed hall with columns and frescoes
Mounted on the walls are the copies of the frescoes that were reconstructed by using their fragments found at this site.
Throne Room
The Throne Room is one of the important structures in the Knossos Palace. The purpose of this room is still being debated.
Built into the wall in the middle of the room is a rock throne flanked on each side by the frescoes of Griffins, which are the mythological creatures with the head and wings of an eagle and body and tail of a lion.
Griffin Fresco in the Throne Room at Knossos
A circular tub called lustral basin In front of the throne, which was likely used for ceremonial purposes. Built into the wall next to the throne are the benches that can accommodate about 16 people.
Throne room with frescoes
King’s Megaron
Believing that this place was King Minos’s apartment, Arthur Evans named it King’s Megaron. Using some imagination, he reconstructed it using modern materials. He also placed a reconstructed wooden throne inside this structure.
This structure is also called the Hall of the Double Axes because of the double-axe symbols found engraved on the walls of a well inside this structure.
King’s Megaron and StoaReconstructed wooden throne
Kings’ Megaron
Queen’s Megaron
The Queen’s Megaron was assumed by Arthur Evans to be the queen’s apartment, but there is no archaeological evidence to prove it. The suite has a hall with the famous Dolphins fresco, bathroom, toilet, and small well.
Queen’s Megaron
Bastion of the Bull
Located near the northern entrance, Bastion of the Bull is yet another structure reconstructed by Arthur Evans by using his imagination. As you can see in the image below, the famous Charging Bull fresco is engraved on its wall.
Bastion of the Bull
Theater Area
This where the visitors to the palace were received. The Theater Area is also connected to a road called Royal Road.
Theater area
Arts
The Minoan art includes frescoes, pottery and bronze sculptures.
Frescoes
Beautiful and colorful frescoes decorated the walls of the Minoan palaces and houses. They followed a certain color code, perhaps borrowed from the Egyptians. Some of the codes are, red for men, white for women, yellow for gold.
The images below show the replicated frescoes displayed at the ruins of the Knossos Palace.
Ladies in Blue fresco on display at the Knossos Palace in Crete, GreeceDolphins FrescoGriffin Fresco in the Throne Room at Knossos
Frescoes on display at the Palace of Knossos
Prince of the Lilies Fresco
This is one of the well-known Minoan fresco and believed to represent the Priest-King of Knossos. It was reconstructed from the fragments retrieved from the archaeological site. The duplicate fresco is on display at the Corridor of Procession in the Knossos Palace.
Prince of the Lilies fresco
Bull Leaping Fresco
The Bull-Leaping fresco depicts a dangerous game of leaping over a bull, and it was played by both men and women. In the image shown below, the person who leaps over the bull is believed to be a man and the persons standing in the front and back of the bull are believed to be women. The gender of the players is inferred from the color code used by the painters, i.e., light color for women and brown for men.
It appears that the game of Bull Leaping was important to the Minoan culture, and the game could have been ceremonial.
Fresco depicting the game of Bull Leaping
Pottery
Although smaller pots were discovered in the Minoan archaeological sites, Minoans were known for their giant jars called Pithoi.
Pithoi Jars
Pithoi jars were likely used as storage devices for liquids, grains, dried fish and olives. Several hundreds of them were found in the ruins at Knossos. Because of their size, they were typically placed on the ground floors. Pithois are differentiated based on their size, the number of handles and decoration on the outer surface.
Arthur Evans found a number of giant Pithoi jars in one place, which he named it “The Magazines of Giant Pithoi.” See the images below.
Pithoi jars found at the ruins of Palace at Knossos in CreteThe Magazines of the Great Pithoi
