Religious Monument

Seville Cathedral – An awe-inspiring architectural marvel

Hagamos una iglesia tan hermosa y tan grandiosa que los que la vieren labrada nos tengan por locos. (Let us build a church so beautiful and so magnificent that those who see it finished will think we were mad).

So said the church elders before embarking upon the monumental effort of building this cathedral at Seville. Visiting this church is a fascinating experience. When you enter this immense and stunningly beautiful edifice, you will realize that the church elders indeed kept their promise.

While not as imposing as some of the famous religious monuments (such as Angkor Wat and Borobudur ) when viewed from outside, the sprawling interior of the cathedral presents an awe-inspiring sight with its immensity, grandeur, and beauty. The towering and massive columns elegantly arch over to the ceiling to support the ribbed vaults. Exquisitely designed geometrical patterns cover part of its roof, and numerous multicolored stained-glass windows cover the walls in different part of the cathedral.

An ensemble of art treasures preserved in the cathedral provides a glimpse of the opulence of the bygone era in which Seville enriched itself from the expeditions to the New World. These treasures include masterpieces from well-known painters and golden and plateresque-style liturgical items.

Officially known as La Catedral de Santa María de la Sede de Sevilla (Cathedral of St. Mary of the See of Seville), the Seville Cathedral is the largest Gothic cathedral and the third-largest church in the world. St. Mary of the See – one of the numerous titles of Mary, the mother of Jesus – is the patron saint of this cathedral. Note that the term See refers to the region typically covered under a Roman Catholic bishop, which, in this case, is Seville. Designated in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site – along with the adjoining Alcázar Palace complex and the General Archive of the Indies – the Seville Cathedral is indeed one of the architectural marvels of the world.

A quick journey through the history

Seville was under the rule of the Almohads – a Moorish dynasty from North Africa – until the Reconquista headed by the Christian King Ferdinand III of Castile and León captured it in 1248. The Christians converted the grand mosque built in 1198 by Almohads into a cathedral by making minor changes, such as changing the orientation and covering the walls with Christian paintings. However, as Seville, a major trading hub in those days, became prosperous after the looted riches, including a massive amount of gold, from the New World passed through it, the city decided to build a Christian cathedral by demolishing the existing mosque.

The Seville Cathedral we see today was built exactly on the site where the Almohad mosque once stood, although only a few vestiges of the original mosque remain. By any stretch of imagination, building a monument of this magnitude is a massive undertaking, so it took more than 100 years to build. The construction began in 1401 and completed in 1506. The names of the architects and builders of this masterpiece are long forgotten, but their lasting legacy remains.

Gothic architecture at its finest

Considered an architectural masterpiece, the Seville Cathedral has a spectacular interior and a magnificent exterior. Although the architecture style of is Gothic, it has its own unique characteristics. Because of the cathedral was built on the foundation of the Almohad mosque, the design of the cathedral was constrained, especially the ground plan. However, the architect(s) did an ingenious job by utilizing the existing space to build a tall and sprawling structure.

Just like any church, the Seville Cathedral is cross-shaped, i.e., long main body with an attachment of two shorter wings, which are known as transepts, on either side built at right angles to the main body. The main body of the cathedral has columns placed in a grid-like fashion to create five longitudinal naves and nine transversal sections. In other words, the interior of the church is a 9 x 5 virtual grid created by the columns placed at the corners of the grid blocks. The central nave, which rises to 138 ft, is the tallest. The height of the columns tapers down as you go towards the sides.

A view of the Seville Cathedral from the Girlada — A view of the Seville Cathedral from the Giralda

Captured from the belfry of the Giralda, the outer view of the Seville Cathedral shown above reveals its Gothic characteristics that include its tall structures, flying buttresses, and stained glass windows. As you can see, the flying buttresses, which run in the longitudinal as well as the transversal directions, intersect, resulting in grid-like formations. Rising above these intersecting joints are the beautifully carved tower-like structures. Besides being aesthetically pleasing, the flying buttresses help distribute the structural load laterally, which allowed the architects to design very tall structures.

Interestingly, the Seville Cathedral – unlike many famous cathedrals- does not have any tall tower (s) built above its main body. However, as you can see, there is a short squarish structure that is above the crossing, i.e., at the intersection of the central nave and transepts.

Although the Seville Cathedral is known as a Gothic cathedral, it is a harmonious blend of many architectural styles, including Renaissance architecture. The Renaissance-style additions include the side chapels – some of which are as big as an ordinary church – built on either side of the cathedral. The other Renaissance-style additions are the two prominent buildings attached to the south side of the building, Sala Capitular (Chapter House) and Sacristia Mayor (Main Sacristy), separated by an anteroom, Antecabildo.

Spectacular interior

The interior of the Seville Cathedral is stunning and breathtaking. When you enter the cathedral, it overwhelms you with its vastness, grandeur, and lavishness of decoration. The tall and massive columns, colorful stained glass windows, mesmerizing patterns on the ceiling present an awe-inspiring sight to the onlookers. Despite its grand scale, the interior of the Seville Cathedral gives an impression of harmonious architecture with its open spaces and the proportionality of the architectural elements.

Central part that includes Crossing, Coro, Capilla Mayor, and Silver Altar of the Seville Cathedral — Central part of the Seville Cathedral

Just like any church, occupying the central part of the cathedral are its core components, i.e., the main altar, choir, and retro choir. Known as the crossing, the block where the transepts intersect the central nave is the center of the cathedral. As you can see from the image, it is the block with pews where people gather to view the Coro (Choir) on the left, the Capilla Mayor (Main Chapel), which contains the main altar, on the right. Inside the main chapel is a beautifully carved wooden altarpiece coated with a copious amount of gold believed to be the largest in the world. Behind the crossing is the plateresque-style altar, known as the Silver Altar, which occupies the north transept and lies in front of the inner wall of the Puerta de la Concepción (Door of the Conception), an ornate door through which visitors enter the cathedral.

Vaulted ceiling covered with mesmerizing patterns

A view of the ceiling of the Seville Cathedral, Spain — Vaulted ceiling above main chapel

A view of ceiling of the Seville Cathedral, Spain — Vaulted ceiling above main chapel

The images above show a part of the ceiling above the crossing. The image on the left is reflection of the ceiling by a mirror placed on floor near the Tomb of Columbus.

As you can see, covering the ceiling are the beautiful geometrical patterns that are symmetrical about both the principal axes. The symmetry and curved nature of these patterns make them aesthetically pleasing. The vaulted ceiling rests on tall and massive columns that are lined up along the naves. Just below this ceiling are the stained glass windows.

Retablo Mayor – The largest altarpiece in the world

Altarpiece at the main chapel of the Seville Cathedral in Spain — Retablo Mayor – Altarpiece at the main chapel

The Retablo Mayor (Great Altarpiece) is an amazing altarpiece like no other. This massive and intricately-carved wooden structure covered with gold is 66 ft high and 60 ft wide and is part of the altar inside the Capilla Mayor (Main Chapel).

The construction of this altarpiece started in 1482 by Pieter Dancart, a sculptor from present-day Belgium, and continued by several skilled sculptors before the completion of the first phase in 1528.

As you can see from the image, the Retablo Mayor is a recessed structure held by tall pillars on either side. The front-facing portion is a grid of compartments, each housing a narrative relief carved in wood and coated with a copious amount of gold.

The structure above the base consists of seven columns and five rows of compartments. Not all the compartments are of equal size. The compartments are separated vertically by pilasters, which are ornate with carvings of historical figures from the Bible or Church. Each compartment contains a narrative sculptural reliefs mostly depicting the scenes from the life of Jesus Christ.

Check the Retablo Mayor – Altarpiece at the main chapel page for a list and description of the reliefs in the compartments of the altarpiece.

The side sections are perpendicular to the front portion and are attached to the pillars. These were part of the second phase of the altarpiece construction, which started in 1550 and completed in 1564.

At the top of the Retablo Mayor is a canopy with three rows of octagonal niches.

Main Chapel - Canopy of the Altarpiece in the Seville Cathedral — Canopy of the Altarpiece

The image shows the canopy above the massive Retablo Mayor of the Capilla Mayor (Main Chapel). As you can see, the canopy is ornate with geometrical patterns containing carvings of 30 identical recessed hexagons arranged in three rows.

Above the canopy, there is a row of 13 compartments, each containing a relief. The relief at the center of this row depicts Mary holding the body of Jesus on her lap, and flanking this relief are the reliefs of the 12 Apostles, six on each side.

Virgin of the See – The patron saint of the Seville Cathedral

Statue of Virgen de la Sede (Virgin of the See) in the Retablo Mayor at the Capilla Mayor of the Seville Cathedral — Statue of Virgen de la Sede (Virgin of the See) in the main chapel

Just above the base of the altarpiece and at the center of the bottom row is a beautifully carved sculpture of Mary holding baby Jesus, known as the La Virgen de la Sede (Virgin of the See). Carved in wood and coated with silver, this sculpture was made in the 13th century. As mentioned before, La Virgen de la Sede is the patron saint of the Seville Cathedral and is also responsible for its official name, Catedral de Santa María de la Sede.

Coro and Trascoro

Interior of the Coro (Choir) of the Seville Cathedral — Interior of the Coro (Choir)

The Coro (Choir) is where the church choir congregates and sings during the mass in a church. In the Seville Cathedral, it is a box-like structure occupying a block in the central nave located a section west of the main chapel. It is closed on three sides and opened on the east side, i.e., the side facing the main chapel. Attached to the walls are rows of seats. The Trascoro is on the west-facing wall.

Trascoro (Retrochoir) of the Seville Cathedral — Trascoro

The area behind the Coro (Choir), known as the Trascoro (Retro choir), presents one of the beautiful sights in the Seville Cathedral. Built by Miguel de Zumárraga in the 17th century, this retro choir was constructed with precious materials like jasper, and is an excellent evidence of the opulence of that era.

The upper part of the image shows the magnificent ceiling above the Coro and Capilla Mayor, and the lower part shows the richly decorated the west-side wall of the Coro ornate with many pieces of art, including paintings, bas-reliefs, and bronze busts. At the center is a beautiful painting depicting the Virgen de los Remedios (Virgin of the Remedies), and flanking it are the two doors that open to the Coro. Above the doors are the bronze busts, and next to them are the bas-reliefs.

The Virgen de los Remedios is one of the numerous titles of the Virgin Mary and was popular with the Spanish conquistadors and Reconquista, and still being worshiped in Spain and parts of Latin America.

Silver Altar – A shining example of mastery of Sevillian silversmithing

Occupying the northern arm of the transept and situated behind the Puerta de la Concepción (Door of the Conception) is a magnificent altar, known as the Silver Altar, mostly made of silver by the famous silversmiths of Seville. It owes its name to the abundant use of silver in the altar.

Silver Altar in the north transept of the Seville Cathedral in Spain — Silver Altar situated in the north transept of the Seville Cathedral

In the center of the altar is the statue of the Virgin Mary with the Child Jesus flanked by the sculptures of San Isidoro and San Leandro. Behind it is the large and exquisitely-crafted silver monstrance shaped like the sun. Mounted on top of the monstrance is a beautifully designed silver crown.

A large canvas hangs behind the altar to prevent its exposure to the Puerta de la Concepción, where the visitors enter the cathedral. The silhouette of the altar on the canvas can be seen from outside.

The inner side of the Puerta de la Concepción wall is visible behind the altar. Mounted on this wall just above the silver altar is a beautiful painting depicting the Ascension of the Virgin Mary. Above this painting is a circular stained-glass window depicting the Ascension of Jesus made by Carlos de Brujas in 1588.

Giant San Cristóbal – A fresco by Mateo Pérez de Alesio

San Cristóbal fresco by Mateo Pérez de Alesio sitauted on a wall next to the tomb of Columbus in the Seville Cathedral — San Cristóbal Fresco

The fresco shown in the image depicts a giant San Cristóbal (St. Christopher) carrying a child, who happens to be Jesus in disguise, on his shoulder and crossing the river. It is on the wall next to the tomb of Columbus.

It is an impressive work by Mateo Pérez de Alesio, who painted it in 1583. He was an Italian painter born in Lecce, and as a student of Michelangelo, he worked with him in the Sistine Chapel.

Mausoleo de Cristóbal Colón – The final resting place of Christopher Columbus

Tomb of Christopher Columbus situated in the south transept of the Seville Cathedral n Spain — Tomb of Christopher Columbus situated in the south transept

Situated in the south transept, the Mausoleo de Cristóbal Colón (Christopher Columbus Mausoleum or Tomb of Christopher Columbus) is one of the popular attractions in the Seville Cathedral. As you can see from the image, the Sarcophagus of Columbus is raised above the ground by four bearers, who symbolically represent the four kingdoms, Castile, Aragon, Navara, and Leon, of erstwhile Spain. Queen Isabella I (along with her husband Ferdinand), who funded Columbus’s famous 1492 journey to the New World, united them into one nation, i.e., modern Spain.

Sarcophagus of Columbus situated in the south transept of the Seville Cathedral — Sarcophagus of Columbus – Bottom View

The rectangular bottom of the sarcophagus is a bronze plate inscribed with the coat-of-arms of Spain surrounded by an inscription in Spanish, which reads:
Aqui jacen los restos de Cristobal Colon desde 1796 los guardo la Habana y este sepulcro por R.D.to de 26 de febrero de 1891
(Here lies the remains of Cristobal Colon kept in Havana since 1796 and this sepulcher by R.D.to of February 26, 1891)

Christopher Columbus was a controversial figure, even in death. After he died in 1506, his body traveled to many countries before it found its final resting place in the Seville Cathedral. But not everyone believes that his tomb here contains his remains.

The saga of Columbus’ remains traveling to many countries is as intriguing as his life. He was first buried in Valladolid, Spain. Soon after, his brother Diego moved it to a monastery in Seville. In 1542, his body was moved to the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, a Spanish territory founded by Columbus. He was interred in the newly constructed Cathedral of Santa Maria la Menor in Santo Domingo, the capital of the present-day Dominican Republic.

As fate would have it, France took over the island of Hispaniola in 1795. Not wanting his remains to fall into the French hands, the Spanish moved them to Havana, Cuba, where they built a mausoleum to house his remains. This mausoleum remained there for about 100 years before the Spanish transported it to Seville, where he embarked upon his famous expeditions.

Installed in the south transept of Seville Cathedral in 1899, Columbus’s mausoleum has remained here ever since. But the controversy about his remains lingers on.

The DNA test carried out in 2006 verified that the remains from the tomb do indeed belong to Christopher Columbus. However, the Dominican Republic still claims that the remains of Columbus never left the country.

Tomb of Fernando Colón, the second son of Christopher Columbus

Just like his father, Fernando Colón (also known as Ferdinand Columbus, Fernando Colombo, Hernando Colon), the second son of Christopher Columbus was also buried in the Seville Cathedral. The image shows his tombstone etched on the floor of the central nave near the west entrance.

The inscription at the center reads:
A CASTILA y a COLON MUNDO NUEVO DIO COLON – To Castile and to Leon, Columbus gave the new world.

Fernando Colón is known for the biography of his father titled The life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus by his son Ferdinand.

Upon is return from his voyage to the new world, he started to collect books and created a private library known as La Bibliotheca Colombina, which is now located on the north side gallery surrounding the Patio de Los Naranjos.

Elegant exterior

The Seville Cathedral has 15 doors/gates (puertas), including three major entrances, which are: 1. Main entrance facing west 2. North transept entrance 3. South transepts entrance. Only the north transept entrance is open for the visitors. The most of the doors are later additions and add to the elegance of this majestic cathedral.

Patio de los Naranjos – The Courtyard of Orange Trees

Patio de los Naranjos (Courtyard of the Orange Trees) located on the north side of the Seville Cathedral — Patio de los Naranjos – Courtyard of Orange Trees

The image shows an aerial view of the Patio de los Naranjos, a garden of orange trees, enclosed by the structures belonging to the Seville Cathedral complex, which are, the northern facade of the Seville Cathedral on the left, Iglesia del Sagrario in the middle, and a gallery on the right.

The small tower in the middle of the right side (i.e., north side) gallery belongs to the Puerta del Perdón (Door of Forgiveness), a gate through which visitors enter the Patio de los Naranjos from the Calle Alemanes. See below the front and rear facades of the Puerta del Perdón.

The gallery on the east side (not visible) houses La Bibliotheca Colombina, a library that holds the private book collection of Fernando Colón.

Moorish fountain used of ritual purification situated in the Patio de los Naranjos of the Seville Cathedral — Moorish fountain used for ritual purification

The Patio de los Naranjos used to be the courtyard of the Almohad mosque once stood in this space. The only thing that remains of the courtyard from that era is the fountain where the worshipers performed ritual ablutions, i.e., washing of feet and hands before entering the mosque.

The Patio de los Naranjos is now used by the visitors to gather and relax under the shade of the orange trees before and after the tour of the Seville Cathedral.

Puerta del Perdón – The Door of Forgiveness

The Puerta del Perdón – which used to be the main entrance to the Almohad mosque in Moorish times – acts as the visitor’s entrance to the Seville Cathedral complex. It got its name because the faithful believed that sinners entered the cathedral through this door to seek forgiveness.

Puerta del Perdón in Seville Cathedral — Front facade of the Puerta del Perdón

Rear facade of the Puerta del Perdón (Door of Forgiveness) — Front facade of the Puerta del Perdón

As you can see from the image on the left, the facade of the Puerta del Perdón is a fusion of Christian and Islamic art. The horseshoe-shaped arch is from the Almohad era. However, the surrounding plaster work – although it looks like Islamic art – is not. In fact, it is the work of Bartolomé López, a Spanish sculptor who made it in 1522. As you can see, the artwork consists of beautiful flowery designs and the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Castile and León (Castle with three towers and crowned lion) on either side of the arch.

Flanking the arch are four beautiful clay statues made by Miguel Florentin. The statues of Archangel Gabriel and St.Peter are on the left side, and the Virgin Mary and St. Paul are on the right side. Above the arch is a narrative bas-relief depicting Jesus expelling merchants from the temple, an episode described in the New Testament.

The image on the right shows the rear facade of the Puerta del Perdón that faces the Patio de los Naranjos.

Puerta de la Concepción – The Door of the Conception

North Facade - Door of Conception on the North Facade of the Seville Cathedral — Puerta de la Concepción (Door of the Conception)

Tympanum of the Door of the Conception on the North Facade of the Seville Cathedral in Spain — Puerta de la Concepción (Door of the Conception)

The Puerta de la Concepción (Door of the Conception) is an ornate door at the entrance to the north transept of the Seville Cathedral.

This richly decorated neo-Gothic style door is the brainchild of the architect Joaquín Fernández Casanova, who also built the Puerta del Príncipe, a similar door at the entrance to the south transept. Built between 1895 and 1917, it is the most recent door of the cathedral.

The theme of the relief on the tympanum of this door is the Immaculate Conception of Mary. As you can see from the image, the Virgin Mary is in the middle, flanked by St. Michael and St. John the Evangelist.

Puerta del Príncipe – The Door of the Prince

Puerta del Príncipe (Prince's Gate) of the Seville Cathedral — Puerta del Príncipe (Prince’s Door)

Located on the south transept of the Seville Cathedral, the Puerta del Príncipe (also known as Puerta de San Cristóbal) is similar to the Puerta de la Concepción and was built by the same architect, Joaquín Fernández Casanova, who built it between 1887 and 1895.

The bronze sculpture of a young woman standing in front of the door symbolizes the victory of Faith and is a replica of El Giraldillo mounted atop the Giralda. Unlike El Giraldillo, it does not rotate and therefore does not serve as a weather vane.

Puerta de Palos – The Door of Sticks

Puerta de Palos (Door of Sticks) in the Seville Cathedral — Puerta de Palos (Door of Sticks)

Located next to the Giralda, it was built in the 16th century by Juan de Hoces and Pedro Sánchez of Toledo. This door is also known as the Puerta de la Adoración de los Magos (Door of the Adoration of the Magi) because of the relief in its tympanum depicts the three kings from the east, known as the Magi, presenting the Child Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. This beautifully carved relief was made in 1520 by Miguel Perrin, a French sculptor living in Seville.

Seated on the right is the Virgin Mary with the Baby Jesus on her lap receiving gifts from one of the Magi.

The lasting legacy

Visited by millions every year, the Seville Cathedral is an iconic landmark of Seville. It is unique, immense, and awe-inspiring, and even after 600 years, the building is robust as ever and will continue to be so for a long time to come. The people who built this incredible monument are long gone, but their remarkable legacy remains.

Seville Posts and Pages
– Sala Capitular – The Chapter House of the Seville Cathedral
– Sacristía Mayor – The Main Sacristy of the Seville Cathedral
– La Giralda: A harmonious blend of Moorish and Renaissance architectural styles
– Las Setas of Seville – A modern artistic structure in a historical city
– Real Alcázar of Seville: Casa de Contratación (House of Trade)
– Real Alcázar of Seville: Pedro I Palace – A masterpiece of Mudéjar art and architecture

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Kappe Chennigaraya Temple

Kappe Chennigaraya is a smaller temple situated in the south side of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple complex in Karnataka, India. Commissioned by Shantala Devi, the pattada rani (principal queen consort) of King Vishnuvardana, the builder of the main Chennakeshava Temple, the construction of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple began at the same time as the main temple, i.e., in 1117 CE. She took great interest in this temple and even oversaw its construction.

There is an interesting legend regarding how Kappe, which means frog in Kannada, became a part of this temple’s name. It involves Jakanachari, the legendary architect and sculptor of the Hoysala era. Here is a summary of this legend.

Legend of Jakanachari

Jakanachari was a master sculptor and a genius. He hailed from a village called Kridapura (became Kaidala because of him) in the present-day Tumkur district in Karnataka. Because of marital discord, he left his wife Manjari, and moved to the capital of the Hoysala Empire and worked as a master sculptor for King Vishnuvardana.

Unbeknown to Jakanachari, his son Dakanachari, who was also a talented sculptor, came to Belur and started working for him. As Jakanachari was carving the statue of Chennakeshava for the Chennigaraya Temple, his son discovered a flaw, i.e., a frog was inside the belly of the sculpture. When confronted by his son about this flaw, Jakanachari felt humiliated and challenged him to prove it, and if he was proved right, he would cut off his right hand.

Dakanachari was proved right, and a frog jumped out when they drilled a hole in the sculpture. Jakanachari kept his word and cut off his right hand. He also came to know that Dakanachari was his son.

Legend has it that Vishnu restored his right-hand once he built a temple dedicated to Vishnu in his hometown, which became known as Kaidala. In Kannada, kai means hand. Both Jakanachari and Dakanachari collaborated to carve a new Chennakeshava idol, and it was consecrated by none other than the Pattada Rani Shantala Devi. However, Kappe remained a part of the name even after the defect-free idol was installed in the garbhagriha.

Architecture

While this temple is somewhat similar to the main Chennakeshava Temple architecture-wise, it differs in size and decoration. The Kappe Chennigaraya Temple is smaller and less ornate. It appears like a prototype of the main temple built for experimentation.

Another significant difference between them is the number of garbhagrihas (inner sanctums). Whereas the Chennakeshava Temple is an ekakuta temple (i.e., single garbhagriha temple), the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple is dwikuta, which means it has two garbhagrihas, one in the west and another in the south. Each garbhagriha has an entrance in front of it. The left image below shows the east facing entrance, which is in front of the west garbhagriha, and the right image shows the north facing entrance, which is in front of the south garbhagriha.

North facade of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple situated inside the Belur Chennakeshava Temple complex in Karnataka, India — North facade of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple

East facade of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple situated inside the Belur Chennakeshava Temple complex in Karnataka, India — North facade of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple

Garbhagrihas

Just like the main temple, the Kappe Chennigaraya shrine is dedicated to Vishnu. A life-size statue of Chennakeshava stands in the west garbhagriha, and a life-size statue of Venugopala stands in the south. Note that both Chennakeshava and Venugopala are different forms of Vishnu.

Venugopala standing in the south garbhagriha of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple situated inside the Belur Chennakeshava Temple complex in Karnataka, India — Venugopala standing in the south garbhagriha

The image shows the garbhagriha on the south side of the the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple. As you can see, the garbhagriha is a squarish chamber with the life-size idol of Venugopala standing at the rear wall on a square yoni platform. Portrayed as a divine flute player, Venugopala is a form of Krishna. In Kannanda, Venu means flute, and Gopala means protector of cows.

In Hindu mythology, Krishna is the eighth avatar of Vishnu. Check the Dashavatara painting on the Hampi Virupaksha Temple Murals for a list and description of the ten avatars of Vishnu.

As you can see from the image, Venugopala is standing with a tribhanga (bent in three places, knee, waist, and neck) pose and playing the flute. There is a similar garbhagriha housing the Chennakeshava idol on the west side of the temple.

The image below shows a narrative sculptural relief depicting Narasimhavatara, the fourth avatar of Vishnu, carved into the lintel of the south garbhagriha door. In this avatar, Vishnu has a man’s torso with a lion’s face and claws. He adopted this form to kill an asura named Hiranyakashipu, who wanted to take revenge on Vishnu for killing his brother Hiranyaksha in his previous avatar, i.e., Varahavatara, the third avatar of Vishnu.

Ugra Narasimha carved on the door of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple situated inside the Belur Chennakeshava Temple complex in Karnataka, India — Ugra Narasimha carved into the lintel of the south garbhagriha door

For a detailed explanation of the Narasimhavatara story, check the following pages: Vishnu’s incarnation Narasimha slaying Hiranyakashipu (describing the relief carved into the outer wall of Belur Chennakeshava Temple) and Prahlada Story – Slaying of Hiranyakashipu (describing the relief carved into a frieze on the outer wall of Halebidu Hoysaleswara Temple).

The relief depicts Vishnu with the lion head and human torso having multiple hands with claws. With the body of Hiranyakashipu lying on his lap, Vishnu is seen ripping the entrails of Hiranyakashipu with his claws. On the bottom left is Garuda, Vishnu’s vehicle, kneeling with his hands-folded. Surrounding this relief is a creeper making several circular patterns, each of which contains a small carving.

Navaranga

Pillars in the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple situated inside the Belur Chennakeshava Temple complex in Karnataka, India — Lathe-turned pillars

The navaranga is the covered hall in front of a garbhagriha. Navaranga, which means nine sectors, is an essential element of the Hoysala temple architecture. In the navaranga design, the rectangular area is a grid of nine sections created by placing the pillars at the corners of the central section. A stone roof above these pillars covers the entire space.

The central section of the navaranga, known as sabhamantapa, is typically the largest. In Kannada, sabha means gathering, and mantapa means hall/pavilion. Thus, a sabhamantapa is like a community hall where people congregate.

As you can see from the image, the pillar in the near end is ornate with beautifully carved patterns. Mounted around the pillar and just below its capital are four finely-carved sculptures, popularly known as bracket figures.

Dance Floor in the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple situated inside the Belur Chennakeshava Temple complex in Karnataka, India — Dance Floor in the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple

Many pillars in the navaranga appear to be precisely-cut and polished using sophisticated machinery, such as modern-day lathes. Because of their appearance, these are often called lathe-turned pillars, although nobody is sure how they were built. Lathe-turned pillars are a common feature in many Hoysala temples, including the main Chennakeshava Temple, and basadis (Jain temples).

A beautifully crafted circular stone covers the floor of the sabhmantapa, and was used as a dance floor during the Hoysala period. As you can see from the above image, the dance floor is a perfectly round stone platform, which still maintains its original polish even after thousand years and is a testament to the ingenuity and superior craftsmanship of the Hoysala artisans. There are four pillars at the corners of the dance floor.

Lakshminarayana carved on the ceiling of the Kappe Chennigaraya Temple situated inside the Belur Chennakeshava Temple complex in Karnataka, India — Lakshminarayana carved on a section of the ceiling

The image shows a section of the ceiling in the navaranga. As you can see, the ceiling is recessed with a square-shaped niche and is carved with geometrical patterns at different levels of the niche. A sculptural relief depicting Lakshminarayana – a form of Vishnu presented with his consort Lakshmi – is at the center surrounded by finely carved geometrical patterns. Note that Lakshminarayana is a combination of two names, Lakshmi and Narayana. Narayana is another name of Vishnu, and it means one who dwells on the water. In Sanskrit, nara means water and ayana means dwelling. According to Hindu mythology, Vishnu lives on the cosmic ocean.

Related Pages
Hoysala Temples
– Belur Chennakeshava Temple
— Bracket Figures, Navaranga, Garbhagriha Outer Wall
– Kappe Chennigaraya Shrine
– Somanathapura Keshava Temple
Badami Chalukya Temples
– Badami, Cave – 1, Cave – 2, Cave – 3, Cave – 4
– Durga Temple at Aihole
Vijayanagara Temples
– Hampi Virupaksha Temple Murals
Khmer Temples in Cambodia
– Angkor Wat, Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs, Banteay Srei, Angkor Thom, Ta Prohm, Bayon
Monuments in Indonesia
– Prambanan Temples, Prambanan Bas-Reliefs
– Borobudur

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Alhambra: Medina

Explore the Bustling City of the Nasrids

Located on the eastern end of the Alhambra was a city bustling with shops, industrial houses, public baths, mosques, and residential quarters. Known as the Medina, this city served the daily needs of the palace and the people working there. Both nobility and the common people, including artisans and civil servants, lived in the residential quarters.

The main street of the city, known as Calle Real (Royal Street), ran from the east end of the Alhambra to the west side near Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate). A part of that trail still exists, and some sections have structures built during the Christian era.

Most of the original Nasrid structures in the Medina are now gone. The Christian kings who took over the Alhambra built structures over them. Later, Napoleon occupied the Alhambra from 1808 to 1812, and upon his defeat, his soldiers blasted many of these structures while retreating.

What remains now are the foundations of original structures and some restored buildings. The ruins of the Medina are on the eastern part of the Alhambra.

Here are some the monuments that existed along Calle Real:

Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate)

Built during the reign of Muhammed III (1302 – 1309), the third ruler of the Nasrid dynasty, the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate) was a gateway inside the walls of the Alhambra and served as the entrance to the city. Although it is one of the oldest buildings in the Alhambra, it underwent minimal restoration. So, it still retains its original characteristics.

The Wine Gate has two similar facades, east facing, and west-facing. The decorations on these were updated during different periods. The image on the left shows the east-facing facade, i.e., facing the Carlos V Palace, and the image on the right shows the west facade, i.e., facing the Alcazaba.

As you can see from the images, the door has a horseshoe-shaped point arch. As with the other decorations in the Alhambra, mathematics played a vital role in creating beautiful art in decorating the Wine Gate facade. The design of this facade is symmetrical about the vertical axis. The beam above the arch has several parallelogram-shaped bricks placed at regular intervals and slanted outwards, creating an illusion that this funnel-shaped structure is holding the balcony above the east facade.

Both the facades have twin windows on the upper floor. The friezes of Islamic calligraphy surround these windows on the eastern one. The rectangular frames decorated with arabesques and Islamic calligraphy are on either side of these windows.

The middle brick in the beam above the arch on the west facade has the figure of a key engraved into it. It is an Islamic symbol whose meaning is not fully understood. It could mean that the key is a symbol of power that opens and closes the gates of heaven. The panel above the beam has an inscription in Arabic, and above it is a balcony with twin windows

Archaeological site of the Abencerrajes’ Palace

The image shows the archaeological site of the Abencerrajes’ Palace located in the upper area of the Alhambra. Historians believe that a beautiful palace with the characteristics of Nasrid-era architecture and art once stood in this location.

As mentioned before, Napoleon was responsible for the destruction of buildings in this site. Upon his defeat in 1812, he ordered his retreating troops to blow up the palace, including the Torre de Abencerrajes (Abencerrajes’ Tower).

The site was abandoned after the destruction. However, this changed in the 1930s when the restoration of the Alhambra started. After the discovery of the Nasrid-era artifacts in this area, archaeologists took a keen interest in this site and started excavating different parts of the palace. The significant excavations took place in 1957, 1990, and 1991. The ruins you see now are the results of these excavations and some restoration.

Rooms of the Abencerrajes Palace — Rooms of the Abencerrajes’ Palace

Before the destruction, the palace was known as the Palacio de la Contaduría (Accounting Palace) because the Christian kings gave this area to the senior accountant of the Royal Council in 1501.

The Abencerrajes’ Palace was attached to the Alhambra wall on the south side and had multiple rooms on the eastern section. A courtyard with a pool existed next to these rooms and parallel to the wall. Calle Real, the main road of the Medina, ran in front of the palace.

Torre de los Abencerrajes (Abencerrajes’ Tower)

Ruins of the Abencerrajes Tower in the Alhambra, Granada, Spain — Ruins of the Abencerrajes Tower

The image shows the ruins of the Abencerrajes’ Tower.

As mentioned before, Napoleon was responsible for the destruction of this tower. The ruins you see are what remained after this destruction.

The tower is on the thick defensive wall that surrounds the Alhambra. As you can see from the image, there are steps to the adarve (the path on the flat top of the wall), which connects it to other towers on the wall.

Puerta de los Siete Suelos – Door of the Seven Floors Tower

Just like the Puerta de la Justicia, this used to be an external entrance to the Alhambra in the Nasrid period. However, the original gate was also destroyed by the retreating Napoleon’s troops in 1812. The structure shown in the image is the restored gate based on the pictures drawn by people, including Washington Irving. It is built on the south side of the wall that surrounds the Alhambra and is located east of the ruins of the Abencerrajes’ Palace.

The gate got its name because of the belief that it had seven floors below the ground. However, the excavation of this site led to the discovery of only two underground floors.

The gate also has an interesting legend associated with it. According to this legend, Boabdil, the last Nasrid ruler of Granada, left the Alhambra through this gate after his surrender to the Christian kings. Before surrendering, he made a deal with the Christian kings to close the gate forever.

Parador de San Francisco – A Former Nasrid Palace and Franciscan Monastery

Located near the eastern end of the Alhambra, this building used to be part of a Nasrid palace built in the 14th century. After the Christian kings took over the Alhambra, it was converted sometime in the 16th century into a Franciscan convent to fulfill a promise Queen Isabella made to build a shrine for St. Francis of Assisi, the founder of the Franciscan Orders. In the ensuing years, many Christian kings were interred in the chapel of the monastery.

After a considerable remodeling of the interiors, it was converted into a Parador, a luxury hotel run by the Government of Spain. The architecture and decoration of its interiors are now a mixture of Nasrid, Christian, and modern styles. The hotel is also called the Parador de Granada.

Alhambra: Christian-Era Monuments

Carlos V Pillar

The image shows a beautifully decorated wall located next to the Puerta de la Justicia and below the artillery pieces in front of the Palacio Carlos V. You can see this on your way to the Alhambra.

As you can see, the wall has three distinct levels of carvings. The bottom level is about Granada. The middle and top levels are about Carlos V, Holy Roman Emperor, who commissioned the building of this wall.

Carved at the bottom level are the three masks, which, according to experts, represent the three rivers of Granada, Darro, Beiro, and Genil. Representing Granada is a pomegranate growing on a tree branch carved on each of the two pilasters in the middle. Note that Granada means pomegranate in Spanish.

At the center of the middle level is an inscription in Latin describing Carlos V. The semi-circular block on the top level has his coat of arms enclosed by a double-headed eagle, which represents the Hapsburg Empire. The four medallions carved on sides of this circular block have reliefs depicting scenes from Greek mythology.

Palacio Carlos V (Charles V Palace)

The Palacio Carlos V is one of the large buildings you see as you enter the Alhambra site. It is a square-shaped building with a circular court in the middle. The facades on the southern and western sides are ornate and have beautifully designed entrances. The northern and eastern walls are mostly unadorned because part of them are connected to the buildings of the Nasrid era. The image shows the south side facade.

Built in the 1500s, this Renaissance building was intended to be a summer palace for Carlos V (Charles V), Holy Roman Emperor, who was an ardent admirer of the Alhambra and wanted to be part of it, although he never got to live in it. He entrusted the job of building the palace to Pedro Machuca, a renowned architect of his time, who also remodeled and renovated part of the Nasrid Palaces. He was a brilliant architect well ahead of his time, and some of the concepts and designs he used became popular later, including the circular court at the center of the building.

Read More: Palacios Nazaríes – Nasrid Palaces – A Shining Example of Moorish Art and Architecture

Palacio Carlos V (Charles V Palace) located in the Alhambra, Granada, Spain — Palacio Carlos V – Charles V Palace

Although the construction of this palace began in 1527, it was not completed for many reasons, including financial and political, and fell into disrepair because of long neglect. Even the roof of the partially built structure came off, and the palace remained roofless for a long time. It underwent a major renovation, which included adding a new roof, and was eventually completed in 1957. The building now houses the Museo de Bellas Artes, a museum of fine arts.

The image shows a view of the palace as seen from the Torre del Cubo of Alcazaba. It shows the west-facing facade and northern wall connected to the Nasrid Palaces. The white-painted structure abutting the wall is the southern gallery of the Court of the Myrtles.

Palacio Carlos V (Charles V Palace) - Circular Court at the Center — Palacio Carlos V (Charles V Palace) – Circular Court at the Center

As you can see from the image, many people are standing in line in front of the palace. They are the visitors waiting to enter the Nasrid Palaces. The entrance is along the northern wall of the Charles V Palace.

Iglesia de Santa María de la Alhambra – Church of St. Mary of the Alhambra

Iglesia de Santa María de la Alhambra (Church of Santa Maria of Alhambra) - A view from the Partal — Church of Santa Maria – A view from the Gardens of the Partal

The image shows a view of the Iglesia de Santa María de la Alhambra (Church of St. Mary of the Alhambra) as seen from the Gardens of the Partal.

Located next to the Palacio Carlos V on the the Alhambra alta (i.e., upper area), the Church of Santa Maria is an iconic landmark of the Alhambra of the Christian era.

Note: To find its location, look for Area B in the map of the Alhambra. You can also see its location with respect to the other buildings in the external view of the Alhambra.

A grand mosque built by the Nasrids in the 1300s existed in this site. Sultans used this mosque for daily prayer, and because of that, it was a place of many palace intrigues. It is believed that Yusuf I, the seventh Nasrid king, was assassinated in this mosque.

Just after the Catholic monarchs took over the Alhambra, the grand mosque was converted into a Christian chapel. Many years later, it was decided to demolish the building and build a grand church in its place. The building of the church began in 1581 with Juan de Herrera being the architect. Because of the cost, his design was simplified by Ambrosio De Vico, who completed it in 1618.

Related Pages
Alhambra:
– Alhambra – Discover the magic of the Alhambra
– Palacios Nazaríes – Nasrid Palaces – A Shining Example of Moorish Art and Architecture
– Los Jardines del Partal – The Gardens of the Partal
– Alcazaba – A Formidable Fortress of the Nasrids
– Medina, the Bustling City of the Nasrids
– Alhambra – Christian-Era Monuments
– Alhambra – Outer Monuments
Generalife:
– Heavenly Gardens of the Nasrids
Real Alcázar of Seville:
– Pedro I Palace – A masterpiece of Mudéjar art and architecture

Generalife

Heavenly Gardens of the Nasrids

Located on Cerro del Sol (Sun Hill), a hill adjoining the Alhambra, the Generalife is a complex consisting of beautiful gardens, orchards, and a palace used by the Nasrid kings as a leisure residence, especially during summer. Derived from the Arabic word Jannat al-‘Arīf, Generalife means an architect’s garden. Inspired by the Persian gardens of the medieval period, Muhammed II (1273 – 1302), the second king of the Nasrid dynasty, built the Generalife complex as his summer residence. Muhammed III (1302 – 1309), the second king, and Ismail I (1314- 1325), the fourth king, extended and improved the palaces and gardens.

The Generalife provides a panoramic view of the Alhambra and Granada area. Although the palaces in Generalife are not as ornate as the Nasrid Palaces of the Alhambra, they still retain the charm of Moorish art. The courtyards have pools with fountains and water canals.

The palaces and gardens underwent significant restorations in the 20th century. The walkways, which were built as part of these restorations, are paved with beautiful mosaics created with black and white pebbles. The black ones are from the River Genil, and the white ones are from the River Darro. It became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 along with the Alhambra and Albaicín district.

Visiting the Generalife

As mentioned before, the Generalife complex is on a hill next to the Alhambra, and separating them is a ravine, which has a bridge that provides access to the Generalife. It takes about an hour to visit the gardens and courtyards of the Generalife. You can combine the Alhambra visit with the Generalife because it is at a walkable distance.

There is a path that leads to the Generalife from the Alhambra. Once you visit the Nasrid Palaces, you come out via the Gardens of Partal, which has signs directing to the Paseo de las Torres (Tower’s walk). Follow these signs, and as you walk, you will see several Nasrid era towers. You then cross the bridge over the ravine and reach the Auditorium at the Generalife. A walkway leads to the lower gardens area, and you start the Generalife visit there.

Lower Gardens

A view of the gardens of the Generalife in Granada, Spain — A view of the lower gardens

The image shows an area known as the Lower Gardens the Generalife located on the slope of a hill next to the Alhambara in Granada, Spain. It is Area K in the map of the Alhambra and Generalife.

At the center of the image is a pebbled walkway that leads to the Generalife Palace and the upper gardens. The Generalife complex has many similar walkways paved with beautiful mosaics created with black and white pebbles. The black ones are from the River Genil, and the white ones are from the River Darro. The walkways are a 20th-century creation built as part of the restoration of the Generalife.

The area on the right side of the walkway is an arable land used by the Nasrids to grow vegetables and fruits. It serves the same purpose even today. As you can see, the agricultural terrace on the right has orchards and vegetable patches.

The area on the left side is used for decorative purposes and has beautifully-trimmed cypress trees. It is a delightful experience to walk under the arches of the cypress trees. See the image below. Although these gardens make a great impression with visitors, they are also a modern creation built as part of the renovation of the Generalife, and nobody is sure how they looked in the Nasrid era.

Cypress tree arches in the lower gardens of the Generalife in Granada, Spain — Cypress tree arches

An octagonal basin in the lower gardens of the Generalife in Granada,Spain — Cypress tree arches

Generalife Palace

The walkway from the lower gardens leads to the Generalife Palace, which has two important courts, which are:

Patio de la Acequia (Court of the Irrigation Channel
Patio de la Sultana (Sultana’s Court or Courtyard of the Cypress).

Patio de la Acequia – Court of the Irrigation Canal

The Patio de la Acequia is a rectangular court with pavilions on all four sides. The image below is captured from the northern pavilion. On the far end of the image is the southern pavilion with two floors. The pavilion on the right (i.e., west side) is ornate and provides a beautiful view of the Generalife gardens and the Alhambra.

As the name suggests, the court has an irrigation canal, which runs through its center. Built in the Nasrid period, it provided water for the exotic plants in the court. On its sides are the narrow terraces with water sprouts spurting water into the canal, creating a beautiful display of semi oval-shaped water jets crossing each other.

The hedges of myrtle bushes run along the outer edges of the terraces. The beds used for cultivating flower plants, bushes, and fruit trees are on both sides of the canal. The Nasrids imported some of these plants, including a variety of rose bushes and jasmine creepers, from different parts of the world, choosing them for the colorfulness and fragrance of their flowers. The plants with their colorful flowers and a pleasant aroma created a delightful atmosphere in the court.

A pavilion at the Patio de la Acequia in Generalife, Granada, Spain — A chamber on the west-side pavilion

A ceiling of a pavilion on the west side of the Patio de la Acequia — A chamber on the west-side pavilion

The image on the left shows highly ornate pavilion with large arched windows surrounded by Islamic calligraphy. As you can see, they provide a beautiful view of the gardens.

The image on the right shows the sunken wooden ceiling of a pavilion on the west side of the Patio de la Acequia. This is a great example of Mudéjar art, a style of decoration originated in Moorish Spain and is a fusion of Islamic and Christian art. There are many rooms in Nasrid Palaces and Generalife with ceilings decorated with Mudéjar art.

Patio de la Sultana – Sultana’s Court

The image shows the Patio de la Sultana (Sultana’s Court) located adjacent to the Patio de la Acequia (Court of the Irrigation Canal).

The court has a water-filled ditch surrounding the rectangular platform. At the center of this platform is a square pond in the middle flanked by two garden patches, each surrounded by a hedge of myrtle bushes. There is a basin with a fountain at the center of the pond. As you can see from the image, several water sprouts on the platform and the corridors are spurting water, creating semi oval-shaped water jets.

Cypress Tree and the Legend of the Abencerrajes

Cypress tree of the Abencerrajes Legend Fame standing in the Patio de la Sultana of the Generalife Palace in Granada, Spain — Cypress tree of the Abencerrajes legend standing in the Patio de la Sultana

Standing on the eastern side of the court is the dried-up tree trunk of a cypress tree, which experts believe was alive during the Nasrid period and lived for 600 years. A popular legend is centered around this cypress tree, and because of this legend the court is also known as the Patio del Ciprés de la Sultana (Sultana’s Cypress Tree Court).

As you can see from the image, there is also a small plaque next to the tree trunk. The Spanish text in the plaque refers to this cypress tree to describe the story that is central to the Legend of the Abencerrajes.

The plaque says :

Cuenta la leyenda que este ciprés de la sultana fue testigo de la amorios de un Caballero Abenceraje y la esposa de Boabdil

Here is a rough translation:

Legend has it that this Cypress Tree of the Sultana was a witness to the love affair of an Abencerraje Knight and Boabdil’s wife.

According to the legend, Moryama (Maryam bint Ibrahim al-’Attarthe), the wife of Muhammad XII (known as Boabdil, the last Sultan of Granada), had an affair with a knight belonging to the Abencerrajes, a warrior clan fiercely loyal to the Nasrids. The lovers used to meet underneath the shade of this cypress tree in the moonlight.

Plaque describing the Abencerrajes legend in the Patio de la Sultana (Sultana's Court) in the Generalife Palace, Granda, Spain — Plaque describing the Abencerrajes legend in the Patio de la Sultana (Sultana’s Court)

A courtier eventually discovered their secret and revealed it to the Nasrids. Enraged by the affair, Boabdil ordered the killing of the members of the Abencerrajes clan. He invited them for a meeting at his palace. The unsuspecting members accepted the invitation and gathered in a hall. While they were waiting for the king, his guards closed the doors of the hall and assassinated as many as 30 of them.

Although there is no historical or archaeological evidence to prove that this event ever took place, the fascinating story of romance and the palace intrigue has caught the imagination of people and helped to keep the mystique of the Alhambra alive.

The hall where the alleged killings took place became known as Sala de los Abencerrajes (Hall of the Abencerrajes), which is a part of the Palace of Lions in the Nasrid Palaces, located in the Alhambra.

Upper Gardens

Patio de la Sultana Staircase in the Generalife, Granada, Spain — Patio de la Sultana Staircase

Escalera del Agua - Water Stairway in the Generalife, Granada, Spain — Escalera del Agua – Water Stairway

A staircase on the south end of the Patio de la Sultana leads to the upper gardens of the Generalife. The image shows the arched gateway above that staircase. As you can see, there are two lion statues atop this gateway.

Besides numerous gardens, the upper level of the Generalife consists of the Escalera del Agua (Water Stairway), Mirador Romántico (Romantic Viewpoint), and Casa de los Amigos (House of Friends).

The image shows part of the stairway know as the Escalera del Agua (Water Stairway) situated in the upper gardens of the Generalife.

The stairway consists of three levels of steps. At the end of each level is a circular-shaped terrace with a fountain at its center. Built atop the wall on each side of the stairway is a narrow canal with the water flowing down. The shade from the trees in the surrounding gardens and the water running in the canals keep the place cooler and make the uphill walk pleasant for visitors.

Mirador Romántico - Romantic Viewpoint - Obseravtory located at the highest point on the Generalife, Granada, Spain — Mirador Romántico – Romantic Viewpoint

In the Nasrid era, this stairway led to a small oratario (oratory or prayer hall) that existed at the upper end of the stairway, which happens to be the highest point of the Generalife. The royals used this stairway to climb up to the oratario to pray and then relax watching the panoramic view of the surrounding areas.

A small observatory known as the Mirador Romántico (Romantic Viewpoint), which is shown in the image, replaced the oratory in the 19th century. The structure does not fit well with the rest of the buildings in the Generalife because it is not a Nasrid-era building. Built in 1836 by Don Jaime Traversa, the administrator of the Generalife at that time, Mirador Romántico is a neo-gothic style building.

Related Pages
Alhambra:
– Alhambra – Discover the magic of the Alhambra
– Palacios Nazaríes – Nasrid Palaces – A Shining Example of Moorish Art and Architecture
– Los Jardines del Partal – The Gardens of the Partal
– Alcazaba – A Formidable Fortress of the Nasrids
– Medina, the Bustling City of the Nasrids
– Alhambra – Christian-Era Monuments
– Alhambra – Outer Monuments
Real Alcázar of Seville:
– Pedro I Palace – A masterpiece of Mudéjar art and architecture

Alhambra: Gardens of the Partal

Located between the Medina (i.e., city) and the Nasrid Palaces, the area covered by the present Gardens of the Partal was mostly residential during the Nasrid era. Because of the convenient location, the people who worked in the palaces lived in this area. Medina, which had shops, baths, and mosques, was nearby and met their daily needs.

After the Christian kings took over the Alhambra, the houses and other buildings in this area fell into disrepair. A major restoration of the Alhambra took place from 1923 to 1936, during which period this area became an archaeological site. Excavations of this site led to the discovery of numerous Moorish houses and even a palace attributed to Yusuf III. The gardens in this area are a modern construction and were part of the restoration that in the 1930s.

The Gardens of the Partal consists of few buildings near the Nasrid Palaces and the gardens built on the slopes north of the upper Alhambra. The two main buildings in this area are 1. Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies) 2. Oratorio del Partal (Oratory of the Partal).

Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies)

Built sometime between 1302 and 1309 CE during the reign of Muhammed III, the Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies), which used to be called the Partal, is one of the oldest buildings in the Alhambra. Partal means portico in Arabic. The Gardens of Partal got its name because of this building.

It had many modifications and renovations done to it over the years, but eventually, it was neglected and fell into disrepair. Fortunately, it underwent a significant restoration in 1924, and the beautiful building you see now is the result of that restoration.

As you can see from the image, the Tower of the Ladies consists of a tower, a hall, and an open portico. Resting on the marble pillars of the portico are the five arches. Only the middle arch, which is higher than the other four, belonged to the original building.

The ceilingof the portico of the Torre de las Damas located in the Partal Gradens, Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The ceiling of the portico

An interior view of Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies), a building with an open portico located in the Partal Gradens, Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The ceiling of the portico

The image on the left shows the ceiling of the portico of the Tower of the Ladies. As you can see from the image, the ceiling has several repetitive geometrical patterns, including many recessed octagons, arranged symmetrically with a deeply-recessed multi-angled niche at the center.

The beautifully decorated wooden ceiling shown in the image is a delight to watch and is a great example of Mudéjar art, a style of decoration originated in Moorish Spain and is a fusion of Islamic and Christian art. There are many rooms in Nasrid Palaces and Generalife with ceilings decorated with Mudéjar art.

The image on the right shows the hall behind the portico of the Tower of the Ladies. As you can see from the image, it offers a great view of the city of Granada.

Oratorio del Partal

An interior view of the Oratory, a building located in the Partal Gradens, Alhambra, Granada, Spain — Interior of the Oratory showing the mihrab

The image shows an interior view of the Oratorio del Partal (Oratory of the Partal), a small building next to the Tower of the Ladies. Attributed to Yusef I (1333-1354), the seventh and one of the most prominent ruler of the Nasrid dynasty, the Oratory was a house of prayer, which was used by the sultan for namaz (prayer). It was first restored in the 1930s, then again in 2017 to the present form.

As you can see from the image, the highly decorated wall has a niche, known as mihrab, oriented towards the Kaaba of Mecca. The upper part of the mihrab has a beautiful arch surrounded by a square border carved with Islamic calligraphy. Beautifully carved arabesques fill the space between the arch and this border. The wall above the mihrab has two decorative windows, and surrounding it are arabesques and Islamic calligraphy.

Note: Arabesque is a repetitive pattern of foliage or geometrical designs found in decorations of Islamic architecture.

Also seen in the image is part of the ceiling, which is ornate with finely-carved wooden panels. It is also an example of Mudéjar art mentioned above.

Gardens

Built on the slopes north of the upper Alhambra and east of the Nasrid Palaces, the gardens consist of several terraces with reflecting pools, fountains, flower beds, and nicely trimmed hedges of bushes enclosing plants and trees.

The image on the left shows a terrace on the west side of gardens. At the far end is the Iglesia de Santa María de la Alhambra (Church of St. Mary of the Alhambra), and to its right is Palacio Carlos V (Charles V Place).

On the right, a low brick wall with a white plaque is part of the remnants of Palacio de Yusuf III (Yusuf III Palace). The archaeological excavation in the 1930s led to the discovery of this palace. Based on the type of construction and the artifacts found in the site, experts attributed it to Yusuf III (1408-1417), the thirteenth ruler of the Nasrid dynasty. However, experts also believe that a much older construction attributed to Muhammad II (1273-1302), the second ruler, existed in this site, and the Yusuf III Palace was a modified version of that building.

The image on the right shows a terrace on the north side of the gardens. As you can see from the image, the Tower of the Ladies is at the far end.

A west side view of the Gardens of the Partal in Granada, Spain — A west side view of the Gardens of the Partal

A north side view of the Gardens of the Partal in Granada, Spain — A west side view of the Gardens of the Partal

Alhambra: Palacios Nazaríes (Nasrid Palaces)

A Shining Example of Moorish Art and Architecture

Known for the grandeur and unique Islamic art, the Palacios Nazaríes (Nasrid Palaces) is a complex of interconnected palaces built by the Nasrids, a powerful dynasty originated in North African and ruled the Emirate of Granada over a period of 260 years. Besides using the palaces as their residences, the Nasrid rulers used them to conduct the state business, including the administration and meeting with the local and foreign dignitaries.

Located on the northern end of Sabika Hill, the Nasrid Palaces are the most popular tourist attractions in the Alhambra. The opulence and lavishness of the palaces make visitors feel like they are in a paradise on earth.

The Nasrid Palaces require tickets to visit, and depending on the season, you may have to buy them well in advance. Besides the Nasrid Palaces, the Alhambra has many impressive monuments, including the Alcazaba, Partal Gardens, and Medina. The Generalife is not considered part of the Alhambra because it is located on a different hill on the other side of the ravine separating them. However, most tourists visit it after the Alhambra tour because of the easy access from the Alhambra. The Nasrid Palaces visit lasts about two hours, and you can complete the entire Alhambra and Generalife tours in half a day.

While the exterior of the palaces appears to be an unimpressive jumble of buildings (See the image), the well-designed and exquisitely decorated interiors are impressive works of art.

An external view of the Nasrid Palaces located at Alhambra in Granada, Spain — An outer view of the Nasrid Palaces

The palaces consist of highly decorated rooms arranged in a quadrangular fashion with a court in front. Some courts have fountains with running water, and the others have reflecting pools or gardens. The rooms have finely carved ceilings, some with mocárabes (Read Note 1 below). The doorways and windows are arched, and the walls around them are embellished with arabesques (Read Note 2 below) and Islamic calligraphy.

The palaces evolved gradually over the years during the Nasrid rule. During this era, many rooms were added, extended, and removed. Once the Christian rulers took over the Alhambra, they too remodeled and renovated the palaces, but fortunately maintained its original Moorish character by keeping the basic structures, and most of its architectural elements, and beautiful decorations.

The Nasrid Palaces consist of three main palaces, which are: Palacio del Mexuar, Palacio Comares (Comores Palace), and Palacio de los Leones (Palace of the Lions).

Palacio del Mexuar – Mexuar Palace

The Maxuar palace is one of the first palaces to be built in the Alhambra and changed the most. The building of the original place took place during the reign of Ismail I (1314 – 1325), the fifth ruler of the Nasrid dynasty, who usurped the direct descendant of the founder and created the second Nasrid dynasty. Later, a significant rebuilding of this palace occurred during the reign of Muhammad V (1354–1359, 1362–1391), the eighth ruler of the Nasrid dynasty.

During the Christian era, An explosion in 1590 destroyed most of the western part. As a result, there is very little left from the original palace. Nobody is sure how the original building looked like; What you see now is a small portion of the original on the eastern part.

The Maxuar Palace is where the visitors enter the Nasrid Palaces. The images below show a part of the main hall. Supporting the ceiling of this hall are the four pillars, each of which is surmounted by the corbels at the top. The image on the right shows the wall and the corbels on the eastern part of this hall. As you can see, the beam and wall are ornate with arabesques and Islamic calligraphy. The beautifully decorated wooden ceiling is from the Christian era and is a great example of Mudéjar art (Read Note 3).

Maxuar Hall in Nasrid Palaces — The Maxuar Hall

A section of the wall on the east side of the Maxuar hall — The Maxuar Hall

Palacio Comares – Comares Palace

The construction of this palace began during the reign of Yousef I (1332-1354), the seventh ruler of the Nasrid dynasty, and completed by his son Mohammed V (1354–1359, 1362–1391). Once completed, it became the official residence of the emirs.

The Comares Palace consists of the following:

Patio de los Arrayanes – Court of the Myrtles
Rooms and Halls surrounding the Court of the Myrtles
Cuarto Dorado – Gilded Room and the patio
Royal bath

Cuarto Dorado – Gilded Room

The Gilded Room is located next to the Maxuar Palace.

Alhambra - Nasrid Palace — The Gilded room wall

As you can see from the image on the left, the walls are ornate with arabesques and Islamic calligraphy. The room has doorways with arches and finely-carved decorative windows above the arches. The Nasrid Palaces have many rooms in this style of decoration.

As you can see from the image on the right, the wooden ceiling is recessed and engraved with beautiful gold-colored patterns. The room got its name because of these gold-colored decorations.

The Gilded Room ceiling is an excellent example of Mudéjar art, which is a blend of Islamic and Christian art created mainly by Christian artisans.

Patio de los Arrayanes – Court of Myrtles

Court of the Myrtles located inside the Nasrid Palacesin in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The Court of the Myrtles -The north corridor view

Court of the Myrtles located inside the Nasrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The Court of the Myrtles -The north corridor view

The Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles) is a quadrangular court with a pool surrounded by well-trimmed hedges of myrtle bushes (hence the name Court of the Myrtles). Situated at the northern and southern and ends of the pool are the fountains, and behind the fountains are the corridors, each with seven exquisitely embellished arches.

The image on the left shows a view of the north corridor with the Comares Tower behind it. The image on the right shows a view the south corridor with a gallery on the upper floor, which has seven arches, just like the floor below. As you can see, the middle arch of the corridors is higher than the other six.

Located west of the Court of the Myrtles is the Gilded Room (Cuarto Dorado), and east is the Palace of the Lions. The visitors enter the Court of the Myrtles through the Gilded Room and walk east to enter the Hall of the Mocarabes of the Palace of the Lions.

Palacio de los Leones – Palace of the Lions

Built by Mohammed V (1362 – 1391), the Palace of the Lions is the most impressive part of the Nasrid Palaces. The palace building reached its crescendo during his rule.

Map of the Palace of of the Lions located inside the Nasrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — Map of the Palace of of the Lions and recommended path for the visitors

It lies between the Comares Palace and the Partal. In the center is the Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions), which is a rectangular court surrounded by four halls.

This map shows the recommended path for the visitors to navigate in the Palace of the Lions. It is on display at the Court of the Lions corridor.

As you can see from the map, visitors first enter the Sala de los Mocárabes, which is on the west, and leave through the Mirador de Lindaraja.

Here is the list of rooms and halls:
A. Sala de los Mocárabes – Hall of the Mocárabes
B. Patio de los Leones – Court of the Lions
C. Sala de los Abencerrajes – Hall of the Abencerrajes
D. Sala de los Reyes – Hall of the Kings
E. Sala de las Dos Hermanas – Hall of the Two Sisters
F. Mirador de Lindaraja – Viewing Windows of Lindaraja

Patio de los Leones – Court of the Lions

Court of the Lions located inside the Nasrid Palacesin in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The Court of the Lions

Commissioned by the Mohammed V and built in the second part of the 14th century, the Court of the Lions is a masterpiece of Moorish architecture in Spain.

As you can see from the image, the Court of the Lions is a rectangular court surrounded by arched corridors, behind which are the four famous halls of the Nasrid Palaces. Located west of the court is the Hall of the Mocárabes, north is the Hall of the Abencerrajes, east is the Hall of the Kings, and south is the Hall of Two Sisters.

At the center is a fountain built with sculptures of 12 lions and a dodecagon-shaped (12-sided polygon) basin is resting above them. The Court of the Lions got its name because of these 12 lions.

Sala de los Mocárabes – Hall of the Mocárabes

Hall of the Mocarabes located inside the Nasrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The Hall of the Mocarabes

Located west of the Court of the Lions, the Sala de los Mocárabes is a hall with an oval-shaped ceiling previously covered with a dome of the Mocárabes. It got its name because of this dome, which was dismantled after an explosion in the 16th century. Check the map of the Palace of the Lions for its location.

Although this hall is beautifully decorated, it is less glamorous than the other three halls that surround the Court of the Lions . The visitors to the Court of the Lions enter this hall before walking to the other halls in the Palace of the Lions.

The image shows a part of the ceiling depicting the court of arms of the Nasrid dynasty.

Sala de los Abencerrajes – Hall of the Abencerrajes

A sidewall with two arches of the Hall of the Abencerrajes located inside the Nasrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The Hall of the Abencerrajes – A sidewall with two beautifully decorated arches

Located north of the Court of the Lions, the Hall of the Abencerrajes is ornate with beautiful geometric designs on its walls and ceiling. It has a central hall and a corridor with two archways. The image shows a sidewall with two beautifully decorated arches on the doorway leading to a corridor.

The Hall of the Abencerrajes owes its name to the legend of the Abencerrajes, a warrior clan from North Africa. According to this legend, 30 of them were assassinated in this room by the orders of the Sultan of Granada, who suspected a member of the clan was having an affair with one of the ladies of the royal family. However, there is no historical or archaeological evidence to support the occurrence of this event. Read more on this legend: Cypress Tree and the Legend of the Abencerrajes

A view of the ceiling of the Hall of the Abencerrajes inside the Nasrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — Hall of the Abencerrajes – A view of the ceiling

The view above the central hall is especially stunning. As you can see from the image, the ceiling looks like a honeycomb constructed with small and colorful cells of different geometric shapes, including triangles and rectangles. Such honeycomb structures are called dome of the mocárabes (similar to muqarnas of Persian origin). Below the roof and covering the entire hall is a deck whose balustrades form a hexadecagon (a polygon with 16 sides).

Sala de los Reyes – Hall of the Kings

Located east of the Court of the Lions, Sala de los Reyes (Hall of the Kings) is one of the most interesting halls in the Nasrid Palaces, mainly because of the three paintings on its ceiling (see the images below). It is also known as the Justice Hall.

At the center of this rectangular-shaped hall is the main room flanked by two bedrooms on the sides. Connecting the main hall to the bedrooms are the exquisitely decorated double arch doors.

A corridor separates this hall and the Court the Lions, and the three beautifully decorated arched doorways connect this corridor to the hall.

The image above shows a view of the ceiling of the Hall of the Kings. It looks like a honeycomb constructed with small and colorful cells of different geometric shapes, including triangles and rectangles.

A painting depicting everyday life on the ceiling of the Hall of the Kings located inside Nasrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — Everyday life

Figting and hunting scenes depicted on the ceiling of Hall of the Kings located inside Nasrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — Everyday life

The images show the three paintings on the ceiling of the Hall of the Kings. These were painted on a sheepskin leather sheet and attached to an oval-shaped wooden vault of the ceiling.

The lower painting depicts the first ten kings of the Nasrid dynasty. The Hall of the Kings got its name because of the this painting. The other two painting depict everyday life and fighting and hunting scenes Although the paintings depict the legends of the kings of the Nasrid dynasty, they were most likely painted by the Christian painters during the reign of Mohammed VII (1395 – 1410 CE) or Yusuf III (1410 – 1424 CE).

Sala de las Dos Hermanas – Hall of Two Sisters

Part of the ceiling and wall of the Hall of the Two Sisters located inside Nazrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The Hall of Two Sisters – Part of the ceiling and wall

Located south of the Court of the Lions, the Hall of Two Sisters is ornate with beautiful geometric designs on its walls and ceiling.

Just like the Hall of Abencerrajas, the ceiling of this hall has the dome of the mocárabes, however, the design is different. The small colorful cells are organized to form concentric geometrical shapes.

Below the roof and covering the entire hall is a deck whose balustrades form an octagon. The wall is also highly decorated, and there is a niche in the wall with a beautiful arch.

A view of the ceiling of Hall of Two Sisters located inside Nazrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The Hall of Two Sisters – A view of the ceiling

As you can see from the image, the outermost shape is almost a circle and enclosed within this circle is a hexadecagon (a polygon with 16 sides). Enclosed within this hexadecagon is an octagon (a polygon with 8 sides), and within this octagon, there are many concentric shapes. Below the roof and covering the entire hall is a deck whose balustrades form an octagon. It is a delight to the eyes to view these mesmerizing geometric designs.

Mirador de Lindaraja – The Viewing Windows of Lindaraja

Sala de los Ajimeces and Mirador de Lindaraja - Halls located inside in Nasrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The Sala de los Ajimeces and Mirador de Lindaraja

The image shows a beautiful view captured from the Hall of Two Sisters. At the far end of the image is the Mirador de Lindaraja (Mirador de Daraxa), and at the near end is the Sala de los Ajimeces (Hall of the Ajimeces). These two halls are located east of the Court of the Lions.

As you can see from the image, a beautifully decorated arched door from the Sala de los Ajimeces leads to the Mirador de Lindaraja. Just like the other halls in these palaces, the walls are filled with arabesques and Islamic calligraphy, and the ceiling is decorated with mocárabes.

With its two beautifully decorated arched windows, the Mirador de Lindaraja provides a spectacular view of the gardens outside the Patio of the Lindaraja. However, the mirador (lookout) is now closed to the visitors.

The Patio de Lindaraja (Court de Lindaraja) – also known as the Jardines de Daraxa (Garden of Daraxa) – is a square-shaped patio enclosing a lovely garden on all four sides. Each side has a portico with arched columns made of marble and a gallery upstairs. This image was captured from one of the galleries.

A view of Patio de Lindaraja located inside Nazrid Palaces in Alhambra, Granada, Spain — The Patio de Lindaraja

At the center of the garden is a beautiful marble fountain, which dates back to 1626, and the basin was first at the Patio del Cuarto Dorado (Patio of the Gilded Room). The garden has several pentagon-shaped bushes and tall trees, including cypress, orange, and acacia.

Notes

Note 1: Mocárabes are unique to Islamic architecture in Andalucian Spain and are similar to Muqarnas (which is of Persian origin). They are decorative elements consisting of recurring geometrical patterns, which appear like honeycombs. Typically used in vaults, mocárabes are a symbolic representation of the cave where Prophet Muhammad received his revelation.

Note 2. Arabesque is a repetitive pattern of foliage or geometrical designs found in decorations of Islamic architecture.

Note 3: The term Mudéjar refers to the Moors who stayed in the Iberian Peninsula after the Christian retook the land ruled by the Moors.

Somanathapura Keshava Temple

A Masterpiece of Hoysala Temple Art

Located 24 miles east of Mysore in Karnataka, India, the Keshava Temple in Somanthapura is a shining example of Hoysala architecture. Although not as famous or as big as the Belur – Halebidu temples, it is as stunningly beautiful and ornate. Built in 1258 CE, more than 100 years after the Belur – Halebidu temples, it is a testament to the continued patronage of arts, crafts, and temple building by the Hoysala rulers.

As the name suggests, the Somanathapura Keshava Temple is dedicated to Keshava, one of the numerous titles of Krishna, who is also the eighth avatar of Vishnu. An unusual feature of this temple is its three garbhagrihas (sanctum sanctorum). Standing inside each garbhagriha is a beautiful sculpture of Krishna, and towering above it is an ornate shikhara (conical-shaped tower) with a kalasa (inverted pot-like structure) at the top. Because of the three garbhagrihas, it is known as the trikuta temple. Note: With a single garbhagriha, the Belur Chennakeshava Temple is an ekakuta temple, and with two garbhagrihas, the Halebidu Hoysalesvara Temple is a dwikuta temple.

A bit of history

The history of the Somanathapura Temple and details of its construction is well documented in several Hoysala and Vijayanagara inscriptions. The area around the present-day Somanthapura, located on the banks of the Cauvery River, was under the Chola rule before the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana captured it in 1117 CE.

Inscription slab standing inside the Mahadwara (main door) of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Stele erected inside the Mahadwara (main door) pavilion

According to an inscription (see the stele in the image), Somanatha, a Dandanayaka (military leader) serving under King Narasimha III (1254 – 1291 CE), took the permission from him to build a temple and established an agrahara (see the note below) and named it Vidhyanidhi Prasanna Somanathapura (Treasure of knowledge, Auspicious Somanathapura) for this purpose. Somanatha also allotted grants for the maintenance of the temple.

Note: In ancient India, agrahara is an area allocated for religious purposes by the king or the nobility to provide housing for the people (typically Brahmins) who maintain the temple.

The temple was consecrated in 1258 CE. However, it is not clear when the building of the temple began and ended. It is believed that it took 68 years to complete.

During his expedition to the south in 1311 CE aimed at grabbing precious treasures from the temples and monuments, Malik Kafur – a general under Allaudin Khilji, the ruler of the Delhi Sultanate – plundered this temple and left it badly damaged. The temple then underwent significant renovations and modifications in the 15th century during the Vijayanagara period. Later in the 20th century, the erstwhile princely state of Mysore took a keen interest in this temple and renovated it further.

Unlike the Belur – Halebidu temples, it is not an active temple because of the damaged idols in the garbhagrihas. It is now maintained by the ASI (Archaeological Survey of India).

Temple Complex

Mahadvara - Outer entrance to the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Mahadvara – Entrance to the temple complex

The entrance to the temple complex is through the Mahadvara (great door) located on the east side. As you can see from the image, Mahadvara has a doorway with a pavilion on each side. Extending these pavilions is the eastern wall of the prakara (a protective wall enclosing the temple). Erected inside the left pavilion is a stele inscribed with the dates and details of the construction of the temple.

Gallery on the west side of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Gallery on the west side of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple

The temple is surrounded by the galleries on the south, west, and north sides. Attached to the galleries are 64 mini shrines, which are empty because the invading armies of Malik Kafur destroyed the sculptures and looted the treasures underneath them.

Entrance

The Keshava Temple is on a star-shaped platform called Jagati, with only one entrance, which is on the east side. The approach to the doorway is through two flights of steps. The first flight of steps is from the floor to the platform, and flanking it are two mini shrines with missing idols. The second flight of steps is from the platform to the doorway.

The facade of the temple is not as ornate as Belur – Helebidu temples because most of the original facade was destroyed during the Malik Kafur attack. As you can see, the replaced elements of the facade are of different color from the rest.

The architecture of the temple is a harmonious blend of the southern Dravida and northern Nagara styles and is known as the Vesara style. The conical-shaped tower, known as shikhara (a.k.a vimana), above each garbhagriha follows the Nagara style design, and the front portion of the temple follows the classic Mantapa style design.

The temple is symmetrical about the east-west axis. In other words, the south-side layout is a mirror image of the north side (and vice-versa).

Exquisite interior

Just like the other Hoysala temples, the mantapa (covered hall) in front of the garbhagrihas conforms to the navaranga design. The navaranga is a 3×3 grid of nine rectangular sections. The middle section of the navaranga is known as the sabhamantapa (community hall). An ante-chamber, known as antarala, separates each garbhagriha from the navaranga. The porch in front of the navaranga is called the mukhamantapa.

Garbhagrihas

As mentioned earlier, the temple has garbhagrihas in three cardinal directions, i.e., south, west, and north. All three garbhagrihas are equal-sized chambers, each with a statue of Krishna in the middle and an ornate doorway in front. The relief on the lintel of each door depicts a mini version of the statue standing in the garbhagriha.

The south in the garbhagriha is dedicated to Venugopala, the west to Keshava, and north to Janardhana. All three are a form of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. The south and north garbhagrihas have the original statues, whereas the west garbhagriha has a replica of the original.

The statues in the south and north garbhagrihas are monolithic sculptures carved from Krishna Shilé (black stone), which is available in plenty in Karnataka.

South – VenuGopala

Venugopala - Sculpture of Krishna playing the flute standing inside the south garbhagriha of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Venugopala – Krishna playing the flute inside the south garbhagriha

Standing inside the south garbhagriha on the star-shaped platform is an exquisitely carved life-size statue of Venugopala, a form of Krishna portrayed as a divine flute player. Venu means flute and Gopala means one who protects of cows.

As you can see from the image, Venugopala is standing gracefully with his legs crossed. He has elegantly bent his well-proportioned body to allow him to raise his hands to position the flute (which is partly broken) perfectly at the mouth level.

Venugopala is elegantly dressed with a beautiful skirt-like dress and is wearing jewelry all over his body. He is wearing bracelets and arm rings on his hands, anklets on his legs, beautiful necklaces around his neck, and an udiyana (waist chain) around his waist. There is a looped thread, known as yajnopavita, hanging across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist. It is a symbol indicating the person wearing it has mastered Vedas and undergone the Upanayana ceremony and is worn by gods and deities.

Venugopala is standing on a star-shaped pedestal. Carved at the center is a relief depicting kneeling Garuda, who is Vishnu’s vehicle. Surrounding him are cows and gopikas (cow herding girls who are associates of Krishna) listening to his music.

West – Keshava

Keshava - Sculpture of Vishnu standing inside the west garbhagriha of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Keshava – Sculpture of Vishnu standing inside the west garbhagriha

Keshava is also another name for Krishna. Kesha means hair, and Keshava is the one who has long uncut hair.

The original statue went missing, most likely after the attack by Malik Kafur. The currently installed statue is a replica built by using the Keshava relief carved on the lintel of the doorway as a reference. As you can see, the quality of the craftsmanship of the statue is inferior compared to the sculptures on the other two garbhagrihas. It also appears to be smaller.

Keshava is a chaturbhuja (i.e., one who has four arms). He holds shanka (conch) and padma (lotus) with his right hands and holds chakra and gada (mace) with his left hands. These are the signature objects that are part of Vishnu’s iconography (Read under Vishnu with Standard Iconography for more info ).

North – Janardhana

Janardhana - Sculpture of Vishnu standing inside the north garbhagriha of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Janardhana – Sculpture of Vishnu standing inside the north garbhagriha

The image shows the sculpture depicting Janardhana, a manifestation of Krishna, standing inside the north garbhagriha.

Just like Venugopala and Keshava, Janardhana is also another name for Krishna. Jana means people and ardhana means to worship. Janardhana means the one who is worshiped by the people.

Just like Keshava, Janardhana is chaturbhuja (i.e., one with four arms) and is holding four standard emblems of Vishnu, shanka, padma, gadaa, and chakra. Notice that the order in which Janardhana is holding these objects is different from Keshava.

Like Keshava and Venugopala, Janardhana is wearing a beautiful skirt-like dress and jewelry all over his body. He is wearing bracelets and arm rings on his hands, anklets on his legs, finely carved necklaces and garlands of gems/flowers around his neck, an udiyana (waist chain) around his waist, and a looped thread, known as yajnopavita, hanging across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist.A finely carved crown adorns Janardhana’s head, which has a halo around it. Just like the other two statues, the Kirthimukha monster is at the top.

Notice his torso closely. It appears like the face of a cow (i.e., the nipples look like its eyes, and the belly button looks like its mouth). This is to indicate Janardhana is a gopala, i.e., protector of cows

As in the case most of the sculptures in this temple, there are two female figures at the bottom. Each is holding a lotus bud/ corn cob with on one hand, and a kalasa (pot) with the other.

Ceiling carved with mesmerizing patterns

The ceiling of the navaranga has 16 finely-carved rectangular sections, i.e., the navaranga has nine sectors, and the mukhamantapa (porch) has seven sections. The ceiling within each section – which is enclosed by beams placed on top of pillars – is a finely carved vault cut from a single stone.

The theme of the carvings is different phases of a blooming lotus bud. The lotus bud at is surrounded by a variety of geometrical patterns at different levels.

The images below show the lotus bud is at the center surrounded by several geometrical patterns carved at different levels of the conical shape. The pattern at the outer most level is an octagon.

A beautifully decorated ceiling of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Lotus bud surrounded by circular patterns

Magnificent exterior

Like many other Hoysala temples, the temple stands on a star-shaped stone platform, known as Jagati. The stone exterior wall surrounding the temple is ornate with a repertoire of stunningly beautiful artwork and sculptural reliefs.

A view from the southwest side of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Somanathapura Keshava Temple – Southwest Side View

A view from the west side of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Somanathapura Keshava Temple – Southwest Side View

Each garbhagriha is surrounded by a circular outer wall and above the outer wall is a conical-shaped tower with multiple levels of densely carved reliefs. As you can see from the image, the outer wall has three sections:

Base – Six bands of continuously carved friezes
Middle – Sculptural reliefs. It appears as though each sculpture is within a shrine.
Top – Decorative carvings just below the eaves. typically craved like the tower of a shrine

Attached to the outer wall are pillars with sculptural reliefs of gods and goddesses and other deities and do not appear to be carved in any particular order or following any story line.

Because this is a Vishnu temple, the majority of the reliefs are related to Vishnu, including the standard iconography of Vishnu depicting him with four hands, each with his signature objects and some of Vishnu’s ten avatars.

Vishnu with Standard Iconography

Vishnu carved on the outer wall of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Vishnu carved on the outer wall

Vishnu, one of the Trimurti , is the supreme god who preserves the order and maintains harmony in the universe. Vishnu is typically depicted as a man with four arms, each holding one of the following four objects:

Shanka : It is a conch shell named Panchajanya that emerged as a by-product during the Samudra Manthana. It was responsible for the creation of the panchabhootas (five elements), which are: water, fire, earth, and sky. When blown, it produces giant primeval sound.
Chakra: It is a disc-like weapon named Sudarshana (which means a good view). The disc has serrated edges. When fired, it spins and moves with a rapid force to destroy evil and then returns to Vishnu.
Gada: It is a mace named Kaumodaki and represents strength
Padma: It is a sacred lotus flower that represents beauty, purity, and evolution

The order in which Vishnu holds his objects vary. With four hands, there are a total of 24 combinations, and sometimes a combination indicates a particular form of Vishnu.

As you can see from the image, Vishnu is standing on a padma peeta (lotus pedestal) mounted on a base. Engraved into this base is an inscription, written in the Halegannada (Old Kannada) script, which reads as Mallithamma. It is the signature of Ruvari Mallithamma, the most prolific carver of sculptures in the Somanathapura Keshava Temple and many Hoysala temples built in his time.

Ashtabhuja Vishnu (Eight-Armed Vishnu)

Astabhuja (8-armed) Vishnu carved on the outer wall of south garbhagrihaof the Somanathapura Keshava Temple — Astabhuja (8-armed) Vishnu

As mentioned in the previous section, carvings of Vishnu with standard iconography depict him with four arms, but this relief has eight. Notice that two of them are missing.

Besides his signature objects, shanka (conch), and padma (lotus), Vishnu in this relief is holding a beautifully carved dhanush (bow) and a bāna (arrow) with his left and right hands, respectively. The two missing hands at the bottom likely carried his other signature objects, chakra and gadā.

Notice that Vishnu’s two hands in front do not carry any objects. They do, however, make specific gestures, known as mudras. In Hinduism and Buddhism, each mudra has a name and meaning and symbolizes the state of mind and intentions of the person making it.

As you can see from the image, the palm of one of Vishnu’s right hands is upright and faces outwards. This gesture is known as Abhaya Mudra, which symbolizes fearlessness and reassurance. The palm of one of his left hands faces upwards, with its fingers slightly pointing downwards. This gesture is known as Vara Mudra (a.k.a Varada Mudra), which symbolizes charity and compassion.

As with the other Vishnu sculptures, he is standing on a padma peeta (lotus pedestal) accompanied by two small female figures located at the bottom.

Check the other Ashtabhuja Vishnu sculptures:
– Ashtabhuja Vishnu in Angkor Wat, Cambodia
– Ashtabhuja Vishnu in Cave – 3 of rock-cut cave temples of Badami in Karnataka, India.

Majestic Maha Vishnu seated on Adishesha

Seated majestically on a cushion formed by Adishesha, a seven-headed mythical serpent, is Maha Vishnu, a form of Vishnu represented as a supreme being. This beautifully carved sculptural relief is mounted on the outer wall surrounding the south garbhagriha.

Maha Vishnu seated on Adisesha - A relief carved on the outer wall of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Maha Vishnu seated on Adisesha

As you can see, Adishesha has created a beautiful throne for Maha Vishnu by stacking up his soft coils to form its cushion and raising his seven-headed hood as its canopy.

It appears that Maha Vishnu is in a relaxed mood, indicated by his pleasant facial expression and informal way of sitting. As you can see, one of his left hands gently rests on the knee of his elevated left leg with its foot placed above the coils, while one of his right hands, which firmly rests on the coils, supports the weight of his body that is leaning slightly to his right.

Adishesha is known by many names, including Shesha, Sheshanaga, and Ananta. Hidden in these names are two interesting mathematical concepts, remainder and infinity. In Sanskrit, shesha means one that remains (i.e., remainder), and ananta means endless (i.e., infinity). In other words, Shesha will prevail even after the end of the universe, and Ananta will exist for eternity.

Check the similar images in other temples:
– Vishnu seated on Adishesha – A beautiful sculpture carved in the mukhamantapha (veranda) of Cave – 3 of rock-cut caves of Badami .
– Vishnu reclining on Adishesha – An intricately carved relief on the outer wall of the Belur Chennakeshava Temple

Lakshminarayana

The sculptural relief on the left depicts Lakshminarayana, a form of Vishnu presented with his consort Lakshmi, and is one of the most beautiful sculptures in the temple. As you can see, Vishnu (as Narayana) is seated leisurely on his throne with his consort Lakshmi on his lap. This relief is mounted on the outer wall of the north garbhagriha.

Lakshminarayana is a combination of two names, Lakshmi and Narayana. Narayana is another name of Vishnu, and it means one who dwells on the water. In Sanskrit, Nara means water and Ayana means dwelling. According to Hindu mythology, Vishnu lives on the cosmic ocean.

As you can see, three of Vishnu’s four arms are missing, and the remaining one holds a gadaa (mace). Lakshmi is holding a kalasha (pot) with her left hand and lotus (top part is broken) with her right hand. Her right leg is gently resting on a lotus cushion, and her other leg is resting on Vishnu’s lap with the half-padmasana pose. Lakshmi’s vehicle, an elephant, is standing next to the lotus cushion. Vishnu’s vehicle, Garuda, is kneeling with the folded hands (namaste gesture) at the left end. Notice that his head is missing.

As per the signature at the bottom of the Lakshminarayana sculpture, Mallithamma is the carver. His attention to detail is striking. For instance, the top part of the lotus cushion is carved with a slight bend to indicate that Lakshmi is resting her leg on it.

The relief on the right is also about Lakshminarayana. In this relief, Garuda, who has a human-like body with a bird-like face, carries a smaller version of Lakshminarayana with his left hand. As you can see, Garuda is dressed elegantly and wearing fine jewelry all over his body. Adorning his head is an intricately carved mukuta (crown).

Dashavatara – Ten Incarnations of Vishnu

According to Hindu mythology, whenever there is a crisis in the universe, Vishnu, the preserver, intervenes to restore order and maintain harmony by manifesting himself in different forms, sometimes human and sometimes anthropomorphic. These manifestations (or incarnations) of Vishnu are known as avatars. The Dashavataras are the ten standard avatars, according to ancient Indian texts, including the Puranas, although there is no complete agreement on the eight and ninth avatars.

The avatars of Vishnu are spread across all four yugas (epoch), which are, Satya, Treta, Dwapara, and Kalki. Here is the list of all ten avatars:

Matsyavatara – Anthropomorphic – Human body with the fish face. See the image on the left.
Kurmavatara – Anthropomorphic – Human body with the turtle fave. See the image on the right
Varahavatara – Anthropomorphic – Human body with the wild boar face. See the image on the left below
Narasimhavatara – Anthropomorphic – Human body with the lion face and claws. See the image on the right below
Vamanavatara – Human
Parashurama – Human
Rama – Human
Krishna – Human
Buddha Human
Kalki – Human – Kalki is riding a galloping white horse

The avatars of Vishnu are spread across all four yugas (epoch), which are, Satya, Treta, Dwapara, and Kali. The first five avatars occurred during the Satya Yuga, the sixth and seventh during the Treta Yuga, and eight and ninth during the Dwapara Yuga. The last avatar hasn’t occurred yet. According to Hindu mythology, the Kalki avatar will appear at the end of Kali Yuga.

The outer wall around the south garbhagriha has the first four avatars of Vishnu shown.

Matsyavatara

Matsyavatara – The first avatar of Vishnu

In this avatar, Vishnu manifests himself into a half-fish half-human form to save humanity from the Maha Pralaya (Great Flood). According to the story, Vishnu appeared before King Satyavrata, also known as Manu, in a half-fish half-human form warning him of a Maha Pralaya that would occur for seven days and destroy all forms of life. To save them from from the deluge, he instructed Manu to build a boat to hold all kinds of life forms. Manu then built a gigantic boat and held pairs of living creatures and plants and seeds. When the deluge began, Vishnu appeared again in the half-fish half-human form to help Manu. Using Vasuki as the rope, he towed the boat safely to the mountains in the north, i.e., Himalayas.

The story of Noah and the great flood in the Bible is strikingly similar to the Matsyavatara story. Numerous cultures in the world also tell similar stories.

The iconography of Vishnu in Matsyavatara has two forms: 1. Upper half-human and lower half-fish 2. Fish face and the rest human-like. The iconography of the sculpture shown in the image follows the second form. It portrays him with the face of a fish and the body of an Ashtabhuja (eight-armed) Vishnu. Notice that three of his hands are missing. The two of his remaining hands hold lotus and chakra, his signature objects. The rest hold an akshamala (rosary) and a book. He is wearing an elegant dress and beautiful jewelry. He is adorned with a finely carved mukuta (crown) on his head with a halo behind it.

Kurmavatara

Kurmavatara -The second avatar of Vishnu

In this avatar, Vishnu assumes half-man half-turtle form during the Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk), which was a collaborative effort by devas (demigods) and asuras (demons) to produce amrita, the nectar of immortality. Using the seven-headed snake called Vasuki as the rope and Mount Mandara as the churning rod, the devas and asuras tugged Vasuki to churn the ocean for thousands of years to produce amrita. Vishnu assumed the form of a turtle and went under Mount Mandara to enable churning.

The image depicts Vishnu with the face of a turtle. The rest of the body is human with four hands, two of which are holding chakra and shanka, his signature objects. The other two are holding an egg-like object known as Hiranyagarbha, or the cosmic golden womb. In Sanskrit, hiranya means golden, and garbha means womb. According to both the Rigveda and Yajurveda, Prajapathi, an deity who eventually became a form of Brahma, was born from this womb. However, they differ in what he created. The Rigveda says the Pajapathi created abstract entities like mana (mind), kama (desire), and tapas (austerity). As per the Yajurveda, he created the sky, earth, seasons, devas, asuras, etc.

Varahavatara and Narsimhavatara

Varahavatara and Narasimhavatara are related. Vishnu slays an evil asura named Hiranyaksha with Varahatara and then kills his brother Hiranyakashipu with Narasimhavatara.

Varahavatara – The third avatar of Vishnu

Narasimhavatara – The fourth avatar of Vishnu

Varahavatara is the third of the ten avatars of Vishnu. Varaha in Sanskrit means wild boar. In this avatar, he assumes the form of a wild boar and rescues Bhudevi (Mother Earth) from an evil demon named Hiranyaksha, who was tormenting her.

In Narasimhavatara, Vishnu has a man’s torso with a lion’s face and claws. Narasimha in Sanskrit mean lion-man. He adopted this body to kill an asura named Hiranyakashipu, who wanted to take revenge on Vishnu for killing his brother Hiranyaksha in his previous avatar, i.e., Varahavatara.

Other incarnations of Vishnu

Mohiniavatara – A female avatar of Vishnu

Danvantari - Sculptural relief carved on the outer wall of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple, Karnataka, India. — Danvantari

The incarnations in the two images emerged during the Samudra Manthana.

Dhanvantari is the god of medicine in Hindu mythology. According to the Bhagavad Purana, he is an incarnation of Vishnu, who emerged with a pot of amrita during the Samundra Manthana .

As you can see from the image, he is carrying a kalasha (pot) with his right hand and a bowl with medicines with his left hand. His two missing hands most-likely carried shanka and chakra.

Mohiniavatara is a female avatar of Vishnu and just like Dhanvantari, she also is a by-product of Samudra Manthana (Note: Moha means Infatuation or crush. Mohini means a seductress).

Once the churning produced amrita, asuras cleverly stole all of it. When Vishnu realized that asuras have amrita, he appeared as a young beautiful woman, a femme fatale, who enticed asuras and successfully grabbed amrita back from them and gave it to the devas.

Other gods, goddesses and deities

Brahma and Sarasvati

Brahma carved on the outer wall of Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Brahma, the creator

Sarasvati, the goddess of knowledge and learning, carved on the outer wall of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Sarasvati, the goddess of knowledge and learning

In Hindu mythology, Brahma is responsible for the creation and is one of the Trimurti (Hindu Trinity) and the other two being Vishnu and Shiva. He is typically shown with four heads, each facing a cardinal direction, and four hands.

This relief is carved on a pillar on the exterior wall surrounding the south garbagriha. As you can see from the image, Brahma has three heads (the assumption is that the fourth head [facing east] is not visible), and four hands, two on each side, and each carrying an object.

He is carrying a spoon (used for pouring ghee into the yagna pyre) and japamala (prayer beads) with his right hands, a kamandala (water jug) and a book (Vedas) with his left hands.

Although Brahma is the creator in Hindu mythology, he is not worshiped as widely as Vishnu or Shiva. There are very few temples dedicated to Brahma in the world. The Brahma Temple in Prambanan (in Yogyakarta, Indonesia) is one of the few temples dedicated to Brahma. The other well-known Brahma Temple is in Pushkar, Rajasthan, India.

Sarasvati is the goddess of knowledge and learning. Sarasvati means one that flows. During the Vedic times, she was the deity represented the Sarasvati River, an ancient river that used to flow in the northwest region (present-day Afganistan and Pakistan) but dried up 3000 years go. Later texts associated her with Brahma and made her his consort.

The relief shown in the image is not the usual representation of Sarasvati. Her standard iconography shows her playing the veena, a sitar-like musical instrument. She is typically shown with two hands and occasionally four, and in this relief, however, she has eight hands (three of which are missing). Instead of the veena, she is holding a talegari (book made of palm leaves) with two of her hands. The talegari indicates that she is the goddess of knowledge and learning.

It appears from Sarasvati’s stance that she is dancing with a traditional Indian dance move. Accompanying her are the two musicians at the bottom (one of them is missing).

Indra and Surya

Indra and Indrani riding Airavata - A relief carved on the outer wall of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Indra and Indrani riding Airavata

Surya, the sun god, carved on the outer wall of the Somanathapura Keshava Temple in Karnataka, India — Surya, the Sun God

The image on the left shows a beautifully carved sculptural relief depicting Indra, the king of Swarga and devas (demigods), seated majestically on his vehicle Airavata, a white elephant, with his wife Indrani (also known as Sachi) seated behind him.

This sculpture is mounted on the outer wall surrounding the southern garbhagriha As you can see from the image, Indra is wielding his signature weapon Vajrayuda (Thunderbolt) with his right hand and holding a lotus bud with his left hand.

The sculptural relief shown on the right depicts Surya, i.e., the Sun, as a god. As you can see from the image, Surya is holding a lotus flower with his right hand. Although the top part is missing, the object in his left hand is also a lotus flower. The lotus flowers are part of the standard iconography of Surya and were used to identify this sculpture. At the bottom of this sculpture are his consorts Saranyu and Chhaya, who are twin sisters.

Check these pages for other Surya sculptures.

Statue of Surya in the Nandi Temple belonging to the Prambanan Temple complex in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Surya bas-relief carved into the ceiling of the Virupaksha Temple in Pattadakal, Karnataka, India
Statue of Surya in the shrine behind the Nandi Mantapa situated inside the Hoysaleswara Temple complex at Halebidu in Karnataka, India

Hampi Virupaksha Temple Murals

Inspirational Paintings from the Vijayanagara Period

Dedicated to Lord Virupaksha, a local name for Shiva, the Virupakasha Temple is one of the main attractions of Hampi and has been an active temple for hundreds of years. An amazing feature of this temple is the murals painted on the ceiling of the Ranga Mantapa, the main hall in front of the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum).

The murals were painted more than 500 years ago at the height of the Vijayanagara Empire. Inspired by the folklore, ancient Indian texts and epics, and Kannada literature, such as Girija Kalyana by Harihara, these beautiful and expressive paintings reflect the traditions and the culture of that era. With the passage of time, the murals have faded considerably. However, some of them have been restored in recent years.

There are three distinct sections in this mural: 1. West section 2. Middle Section 3. East Section. The Virupaksha Temple is an east-facing temple, so note that the west section is near the garbhagriha and the east section is near the entrance.

The main focus of the paintings on the west section is Shiva and the celebration of his marriage to Parvati. The middle section has a beautiful lotus flower medallion carved at the center, flanked by two narrative paintings depicting stories about Shiva. The east section is about Vishnu, his avatars, and related scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata.

West Section

Painted on the topmost panel of the eastern section are the Trimurti, Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma, each with their consorts.

Shiva painted on the ceiling of the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, Karnataka, India — Vishnu

The theme of the rest of the eastern section is Girija Kalyana, the celebration of the Shiva and Parvati wedding, and is based on the epic poem authored by Harihara, an ancient Kannada poet known for his devotion to Shiva.

Girija Kalyana – Pompous wedding of Shiva and Parvati

The image below depicts the scenes at the wedding of Shiva and Parvati. Attending the wedding are the pantheon of Hindu gods, including Brahma and Shiva (the other two gods from the Hindu Trinity), Ashta Dikpalas (guardians of the eight directions), rishis (sages), devas (demigods), celestial beings such as gandharvas, yakshas, and kimpurushas (mythical creatures with the human bodies and horse or lion heads).

Girija Kalyana - Wedding of Shiva and Parvati painted on the ceiling of the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, Karnataka, India — Girija Kalyana – Wedding of Shiva and Parvati

The rectangular frames on the topmost panel show kinnara’s on the left and right extremes, and palaces with onlookers in the middle.

The second panel from the top depicts the actual wedding ceremony. At the center is Shiva trying to hold Parvati’s hands. Standing behind Shiva is Brahma, shown with four heads, and behind Brahma is Vishnu, shown with four hands, and his wife Lakshmi, who is carrying a veena.

Behind Vishnu and Lakshmi is Narada, the matchmaker of the Shiva-Parvati alliance, and the horse-faced figure standing next to Narada is Tumburu, a gandharva considered as the best musician among the gandharvas. Notice that both Narada and Tumburu are carrying musical instruments on their shoulders.

Standing behind Parvati are her parents – Himavata and Mena – and female attendants. The figures on the last frame with the lion, horse, and elephant heads represent the mythical creatures from the forests.

The topmost panel shows kinnaras who have human heads with the bodies of birds. The panel below the wedding panel shows the ordinary people celebrating the wedding and playing music with drums and tuttooris, trumpet-like instruments. The panel below depicts Ashta Dikpalas (eight guardians of the directions).

Ashta Dikpalas – Guardians of the eight directions

Painted on each of the eight frames is a dikpala (guardian of a direction).

Ashta Dikpalas - Painting on the Hampi Virupaksha Temple ceiling — Ashta Dikpalas

Here is the list from left to right:

1. Ishana – Guardian of Eshanya (Northeast), riding Vrishaba (a bull)
2. Nirrti – Guardian of Nairutya (Southwest), riding a horse and carrying a sword
3. Vayu – Guardian of Vayuvya (Northwest), riding a gazelle
4. Varuna – Guardian of Paschima (West), riding Makara (a crocodile-like mythical creature)
5. Kubera – Guardian of Uttara (North), riding Nara (a man) and carrying a gada (mace)
6. Yama – Guardian of Dakshina (South), riding a male buffalo
7. Agni – Guardian of Agneya (Southeast), riding a ram
8. Indra – Guardian of Purva (East), riding Airavata (a white elephant) and wielding his signature weapon Vajrayuda (Thunderbolt)

Middle Section

The middle section has a beautiful lotus medallion carved at the center flanked by the following two narrative paintings.

Manmatha Vijaya – Manmatha firing Kamabanas at Shiva.
Tripurantaka – Shiva’s incarnation destroying three aerial cities

Manmatha Vijaya – Manmatha shooting Kamabanas at Shiva

Hamp Virupaksha Temple Murals - Manmatha Vijaya - Kama shooting Kamabanas at Shiva — Manmatha Vijaya – Kama shooting Kamabanas at Shiva

This painting shows a scene based on Shiva Purana where Manmatha (also known as Kama, Kamadeva), the god of love and carnal desire, strikes Shiva with Kamabanas (Kama’s arrows) to arouse passion and desire in meditating Shiva.

Here is the story in brief:

After the death of his wife Sati, a grief-stricken Shiva started meditating, resulting in a great imbalance in the world. Meanwhile, Sati was reborn as Parvati, and the gods wanted Shiva to marry Parvati. To accomplish this goal, Indra, the king of heaven and the devas (demigods), sends Kama to break Shiva’s meditation, and arouse his passion and desire to make him love Parvati.

As you can see from the image, Kama is standing with an elegant pose inside a chariot driven by his vahana (vehicle), a parrot. Standing behind him is his consort Rathi. Seated on a majestic throne with a meditation pose is Shiva. Below him are Agni riding a ram and Parvati waiting for Shiva to open his eyes. As Kama shoots his arrows made of flowers from a sugarcane bow, Shiva opens his eyes with rage for waking him up from his meditation.

Tripurantaka – Shiva’s incarnation destroying three aerial cities

This painting depicts Tripurantaka, an incarnation of Shiva. Note: Tripura means three cities. With his incarnation, Shiva destroys three aerial cities, each belonging to a son of Tarakasura. As you can see from the image, Shiva is riding a chariot and pointing an arrow at the three cities (two of them are partly visible on the right side). The faces drawn inside the wheels of the chariot represent the moon and the sun.

Here is the story in brief:

Pleased with the three sons of Tarakasura after they perform tapasu, Brahma presents them with three aerial cities in the sky that revolve around the earth. Brahma assures them that they are indestructible, except when a single arrow pierces through them when they are aligned in a straight line.

When Tarakasura’s sons realize that they are invincible, they start tormenting the devas (demigods) and rishis (sages). The gods, including Vishnu and Brahma, urge Shiva to destroy the evil cities. Shiva agrees and makes plans to teach Tarakasura’s sons a lesson.

Vishwakarma, the god of architecture and crafts, constructs a chariot with Prithvi (Earth) as its body and Surya (Sun) and Chandra (Moon) as its wheels. He creates a bow from Mount Meru with Vasuki as its string. Brahma volunteers to become the charioteer, and Vishnu the arrow. Once the chariot is ready, Shiva waits for the precise moment for the three cities to align into a straight line and shoots an arrow that pierces through the aerial cities and destroys them.

Shiva wipes the ashes from the destroyed cities on his forehead horizontally with his three fingers, and these three lines remain permanently on his forehead from then on. Based on this legend, Shiva’s devotees apply the three horizontal ash lines daily on their foreheads.

East Section

Dashavatara and Rama Sita Wedding painted on the ceiling of the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, Karnataka, India — Dashavatara and Rama Sita Wedding painted on the ceiling of the Virupaksha Temple

The theme of the upper part of the east section is Dashavatara (ten avatars of Vishnu). Each avatar is painted in a small frame in chronological order. The Dashavatara frame is flanked by Rathi on the left and Manmatha on the right.

The lower part has three themes:
1. Draupadi Swayamvara on the lower right. Arjuna shoots at the Matsa Yantra (Fish Machine) to win Draupadi’s hand
2. Wedding of Rama and Sita in the middle
3. Sita Swayamvara on the lower left. Rama lifts the bow at the King Janaka’s palace to win Sita’s hand

Dashavatara – Ten Incarnations of Vishnu

The panel shown in the image below has 12 frames. Painted between the two large end frames are the ten standard avatars of Vishnu, which are in the chronological order from left to right.

According to Hindu mythology, Vishnu, the preserver, intervenes by manifesting himself in different forms – sometimes human and sometimes anthropomorphic – to restore order and maintain harmony in the universe. These manifestations (or incarnations) of Vishnu are known as avatars. The Dashavataras are the ten standard avatars, according to ancient Indian texts, including the Puranas, although there is no complete agreement on the eight and ninth avatars.

The avatars of Vishnu are spread across all four yugas (epoch), which are, Satya, Treta, Dwapara, and Kalki. The list below provides a brief explanation of the avatars painted in the image from left to right :

1. Matsyavatara – Human face with the body of a fish
2. Kurmavatara – Human face with the body of a turtle
3. Varahavatara – Human body with the face of a wild boar
4. Narasimhavatara – Human body with the face and claws of a lion
5. Vamanavatara – Vamana is carrying a wooden umbrella.
6. Parashurama – Parashurama is holding an ax, his signature weapon
7. Rama
8. Krishna – Krishna is killing Kaliya, a serpent causing trouble in the Yamuna River
9. Buddha
10. Kalki – Kalki is riding a galloping white horse

The first five avatars occurred during the Satya Yuga, the sixth and seventh during the Treta Yuga, and eight and ninth during the Dwapara Yuga. The last avatar hasn’t occurred yet. According to Hindu mythology, the Kalki avatar will appear at the end of the current Kali Yuga.

The two end frames depict Rathi and Manmatha. Riding a horse on the left end is Rathi, and riding an elephant at the right end is Manmatha, and each is holding a bow and an arrow.

Sita Swayamvara – Rama lifting King Janaka’s bow

Note: Swayamvara is an ancient Indian practice in which girl herself chooses her husband. Swayam means self and vara means groom.

Sita Swayamvara - Rama lifting the bow - a mural painted on the ceiling of the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, Karnataka, India — Sita Swayamvara – Rama lifting the bow

According to the story, King Janaka of Videha arranges a swayamvara for the princes who seek his daughter Janaki’s (Sita’s other name) hand in marriage. The suitor must lift the bow that King Janaka inherited from his ancestors. None of the other suitors, including Rama’s nemesis Ravana, succeed in lifting it.

As you can see from the image, Rama, an avatar Vishnu who was born as a prince of Ayodhya, is lifting the King Janaka’s bow above his head. Standing on the right side are Sita and her parents, Janaka and Maithili, who are anxiously watching Rama as he is lifting the bow.

Draupadi Swayamvara – Arjuna shooting at the fish revolving in the Matsya Yantra

This painting depicts a scene from the Draupadi Swayamvara episode narrated in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. According to the story, King Drupada of Panchala arranges a swayamvara for the princes who seek his daughter Draupadi’s hand in marriage.

As part of this swayamvara, his sons devised a competition where the suitor must shoot a mechanical fish revolving above in the Matsya Yantra (Fish Machine) by looking only at its image in the water pond below.

As you can see from the image, Arjuna, one of the Pandavas, is looking down into the water pond to see the reflection of the mechanical fish revolving above while he is aiming the metallic bow up to shoot that fish. Draupadi, whose hand Arjuna is seeking, is standing on the right, anxiously watching Arjuna.

Hoysala Temples
– Belur Chennakeshava Temple
— Bracket Figures, Navaranga, Garbhagriha Outer Wall
– Kappe Chennigaraya Shrine
– Somanathapura Keshava Temple
Badami Chalukya Temples
– Badami, Cave – 1, Cave – 2, Cave – 3, Cave – 4
– Durga Temple at Aihole
Khmer Temples in Cambodia
– Angkor Wat, Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs, Banteay Srei, Angkor Thom, Ta Prohm, Bayon
Monuments in Indonesia
– Prambanan Temples, Prambanan Bas-Reliefs
– Borobudur

Badami

This page is about Badami, a small town in in northern Karnataka with a glorious past., where the Chalukya Empire was founded 1500 years ago, and remained its capital until 753 CE.
its iconic landmarks, which include four rock-cut cave temples, Agastya Lake, and temples in the surrounding area. This page describes important landmarks of Badami with detailed images captured from vantage points. These include four rock-cut temples, Agastya Lake and temples in the surrounding area.

A Vibrant Town with a Glorious Past

Badami is just another town in northern Karnataka, but with an exception. Here, a glorious chapter in the history of India, Karnataka in particular, was written, when Pulakeshi I, a vassal/feudal lord from nearby Aihole, established the Chalukya Empire about 1500 years ago. It flourished for 200 more years and became the precursor to the other powerful empires, including the Vijayanagara Empire, that ruled the region for another eight hundred years.

When Pulakeshi I saw Badami, he fell in love with its beauty, and at the same time, he recognized its strategic importance because of its location. Badami offers a natural defense against enemy attacks because of the rugged sandstone hills around it. He moved his capital from Aihole to Badami and founded his dynasty by declaring his independence in 540 CE. His lineage became known as the Badami Chalukyas or Early Chalukyas.

Badami remained as their capital until 753 CE when its last ruler Kirtivarman II was overthrown by the Rastrakutas, the feudatory of Badami Chalukyas. The Badami Chalukyas later split into the Eastern and Western Chalukyas and ruled the region until the 12th century.

The Western Chalukyas eventually defeated the Rastrakutas and occupied Badami in the 10th century. They built a few new temples and enhanced the existing temples, especially the Jain temple in Cave 4. Later, the Vijayanagara Empire gained control of Badami. However, Badami never regained its past glory.

Tippu Sultan, the tiger of Mysore, also left his mark in Badami in the 18th century. Enamored by its beauty and the strategic location, he built forts around the existing ruins on the northern and southern sandstone hills. He built granaries and the treasury in the north fort and a watch tower in the south fort.

Chalukyas were benevolent rulers, and under their patronage, religions, arts, and most importantly, the Kannada language flourished. They were responsible for building numerous temples in and around Badami, including the magnificent rock-cut cave temples. The dynasties that came after the Chalukyas continued this trend, and the temple building flourished. As a result, hundreds of beautiful temples, big and small, dedicated to a variety of gods and goddesses, now dot the landscape of Karnataka and the surrounding regions.

Cave Temples of Badami – Masterpieces of Chalukya Temple Art

Carved out of a red sandstone hill overlooking the beautiful Agastya Lake, the four cave temples of Badami are great works of art. Because of their stunningly beautiful carvings – enhanced by the colorfulness and pleasant texture of the red sandstone – they stand out from the rest of the cave temples in India (which include Ajantha-Ellora caves, Karla caves, Elephanta caves, and Barabar caves).

The cave temples were constructed by meticulously carving out the stone material from the rock to create beautiful structures, sculptures, and sculptural reliefs. Visiting these masterpieces of art and architecture is a fascinating experience. It is mind-boggling how ancient Indians were able to create such magnificent structures without the aid of sophisticated machinery or tools.

Built next to each other and connected via stone staircases, the four cave temples are labeled Cave 1, Cave 2, Cave 3, and Cave 4, based on the sequence of their approach. In other words, you would visit Cave 1 first and Cave 4 last.

The chronological order of their construction is not known because of lack of inscriptions. Only Cave 3 has inscription detailing its dating. However, it is generally believed that they were constructed in the same sequence as their approach.

Check these pages for a detailed explanation of these caves:

Cave	Dedication	Reliefs
Cave 1	Shiva	Nataraja, Dwarapala, Ardhanarishvara, Harihara
Cave 2	Vishnu	Varahavatara, Vamanavatara
Cave 3	Maha Vishnu	Maha Vishnu, Ashtabhuja Vishnu, Varahavatara, Vamanavatara, Narasimhavatara
Cave 4	Mahavira (Jain Temple)	Mahavira, Adinatha, Parshvanatha, Bahubali, Mahavira with Jakkave

Legend of Badami

According to the inscriptions found in the area, Badami was known as Vatapi when it was the capital of the Early Chalukyas. It got its name from the legend of two rakshasa (demon) brothers, Vatapi and Ilvala, who used to live the region and tormented the travelers. Agastya, a powerful rishi (sage) who lived in the Vindhyas, eventually killed them. Badami has an ancient lake in the valley between the sandstone hills, and the inscriptions refer to it as Agastya Tirtha or Agastya Mahasarovara, most likely because of this legend.

Agastya Thirta

Agastya Lake in Badami, Karnataka, India — Agastya Lake in Badami

Agastya Thirta is an artificial lake sandwiched between the northern and southern red sandstone hills of Badami. Commissioned most-likely by the Early Chalukyas and created by building a dam on its west side. The magnificent Badami caves are located on the southwest side of the lake. This picture was taken from a vantage point near Cave 2 of the Badami Caves.

The red sandstone cliffs located north of the lake are home to ancient temples built mostly by the Early Chalukyas. The temple at the top of the hill is called the Upper Shivalaya, and the small temple at the extreme left is called the Lower Shivalaya. Both the temples are now dedicated to Shiva and built by the Early Chalukyas in the 6th century CE.

If you expand the image, the walls of the fort built by Tippu Sultan are visible. The temple on the dam is the Yellamma Temple (See below), which was built by the Western Chalukyas in the 11th century CE.

Agastya Lake - A view from the north showing the dam, Badami caves, and fort — Agastya Lake – A view from the north side

The image shows a view of the Agastya Lake from the north side with the dam on the right and the northern red sandstone hills at the far end. If you expand the image, you can see Cave 1 and Cave 4. Cave 2 and Cave 3 are hidden by the rocks.

At the top of the hill, you can see the Badami Fort, built in 543 CE by Pulakeshi I, and a watchtower built by Tippu Sultan. The entrance with steps to the watchtower and the fort is located in an opening in the rocks between Cave 2 and Cave 3.

Bhuthanatha Temple on the Eastern Shore

The image shows a view of the Bhuthanatha Temple on the eastern shores of the Agastya Lake. This picture was taken from Cave 4 of the Badami caves located on the southern red sandstone hills.

During the monsoon season, the water level reaches up to the temple platform. As you can see from the image, the water has receded, and the near-end of the image shows the dried-up lake bed.

This temple is dedicated to Bhuthanatha, a form of Shiva, and dated to the 8th century CE. The temple underwent modifications in the later when the Western Chalukyas ruled Badami.

Yellamma Temple on the Western Shore

The image shows a view of the Yellamma Temple built on top of the dam on the west side of the Agastya Lake. The picture was taken from Cave 2 of the Badami Caves located on the southern red sandstone hills.

Yellamma Temple on the west side of the Agastya Lake in Badami, Karnataka, India — Yellamma Temple on the west side of the Agastya Lake

As the name suggests, the temple is dedicated to Yellamma, a popular goddess worshiped in parts of Karnataka and Telangana. Yellamma is a local name for Renuka, the wife of Rishi Jamadagni and the mother of Parashurama, the sixth avatar of Vishnu. The temple was built by the later Chalukyas in the 11th century CE.

As you can see from the image, the temple has a beautiful shikara (tower) above its garbhagriha (inner sanctum) and a mantapa (hall) in front of it. The architecture of this temple is a fusion of nagara-style of North India with the mantapa-style of South India (i.e., Dravida architecture).

Shivalayas

The northern sandstone hills have three Shivalayas, i.e., temples for Shiva. These are, Upper Shivalaya, Lower Shivalaya, and Malegitti Shivalaya.

Upper Shivalaya

The image shows structures on top of northern red sandstone hills which are north of the Agastya Lake, and opposite of similar sandstone hills on the south side o this lake. The south-side hills home to four magnificent rock-cut cave temples.

At the top is Upper Shivalaya built by the Chalukyas in the 6th century CE. Surrounding Upper Shivalaya is a fort rebuilt by Tippu Sultan. The two structures below the Upper Shivalaya are the watchtowers.

According to the information on the ASI (Archeological Survey of India) plaque, the Upper Shivalaya was originally a Vishnu temple, which became a Shivalaya (a temple for Shiva) in the later years. It has sculptural reliefs related to Vishnu and Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu. The idol in the garbhagriha is missing.

Lower Shivalaya

The image shows the remnants of a once magnificent temple, now known as the Lower Shivalaya, located just below the Upper Shivalaya and to the east of the Malegitti Shivalaya.

Only the inner sanctum and the tower above it have survived. The idol in the inner sanctum is missing. The temple was originally dedicated to Vatapi Ganapathi and was well known in olden times. Even today, Carnatic musicians invoke the blessings of Vatapi Ganapathi by singing Vatapi Ganapathi Bhajeyam.

Malegitti Shivalaya

The image shows the Malegitti Shivalaya built on the red sandstone cliffs located north of the Agastya Lake.

According to the information on the ASI (Archeological Survey of India) plaque, the temple is dated to the late 7th century CE and was dedicated to Surya, the sun god. The original idol in the garbhagriha (inner sanctum) is missing. However, there is a relief depicting Surya riding seven horses on the lintel of the garbhagriha door. Check the Surya idol in the Surya shrine in the Hoysalesvara Temple complex in Halebidu.

As you can see from the image, the outer wall contains jālandharas (perforated windows) and devakoshtas (niches), which are unique to the Davida-style architecture. The Durga Temple in Aihole, also built by Badami Chalukyas, has similar architectural elements installed in its inner wall. The richly decorated shikhara (tower) of Malegitti Shivalaya is unique in that it is octagonal.

It is not clear how the temple got its name. In Kannada, mālé means garland and mālegitti means lady garland maker. It became a Shivalaya (a shrine for Shiva) after a Shivalinga was installed in its garbhagriha (inner sanctum) years later.

A quick journey through the history

Gothic architecture at its finest

Spectacular interior

Vaulted ceiling covered with mesmerizing patterns

Retablo Mayor – The largest altarpiece in the world

Virgin of the See – The patron saint of the Seville Cathedral

Coro and Trascoro

Silver Altar – A shining example of mastery of Sevillian silversmithing

Giant San Cristóbal – A fresco by Mateo Pérez de Alesio

Mausoleo de Cristóbal Colón – The final resting place of Christopher Columbus

Tomb of Fernando Colón, the second son of Christopher Columbus

Elegant exterior

Patio de los Naranjos – The Courtyard of Orange Trees

Puerta del Perdón – The Door of Forgiveness

Puerta de la Concepción – The Door of the Conception

Puerta del Príncipe – The Door of the Prince

Puerta de Palos – The Door of Sticks

The lasting legacy

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Legend of Jakanachari

Architecture

Garbhagrihas

Navaranga

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Explore the Bustling City of the Nasrids

Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate)

Archaeological site of the Abencerrajes’ Palace

Torre de los Abencerrajes (Abencerrajes’ Tower)

Puerta de los Siete Suelos – Door of the Seven Floors Tower

Parador de San Francisco – A Former Nasrid Palace and Franciscan Monastery

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Carlos V Pillar

Palacio Carlos V (Charles V Palace)

Iglesia de Santa María de la Alhambra – Church of St. Mary of the Alhambra

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Heavenly Gardens of the Nasrids

Visiting the Generalife

Lower Gardens

Generalife Palace

Patio de la Acequia – Court of the Irrigation Canal

Patio de la Sultana – Sultana’s Court

Cypress Tree and the Legend of the Abencerrajes

Upper Gardens

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Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies)

Oratorio del Partal

Gardens

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A Shining Example of Moorish Art and Architecture

Palacio del Mexuar – Mexuar Palace

Palacio Comares – Comares Palace

Cuarto Dorado – Gilded Room

Patio de los Arrayanes – Court of Myrtles

Palacio de los Leones – Palace of the Lions

Patio de los Leones – Court of the Lions

Sala de los Mocárabes – Hall of the Mocárabes

Sala de los Abencerrajes – Hall of the Abencerrajes

Sala de los Reyes – Hall of the Kings

Sala de las Dos Hermanas – Hall of Two Sisters

Mirador de Lindaraja – The Viewing Windows of Lindaraja

Notes

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A Masterpiece of Hoysala Temple Art

A bit of history

Temple Complex

Entrance

Exquisite interior

Garbhagrihas

South – VenuGopala

West – Keshava

North – Janardhana