Planning a trip to the Elephanta Caves? This guide explains how to reach Elephanta Island by ferry from the Gateway of India, including transportation options, ferry schedules, ticket information, the toy train, the climb to the caves, and practical visitor tips for a smooth and enjoyable journey.
Unlike many archaeological sites in India, the Elephanta Caves are located on an island about 7 miles east of Mumbai harbor and can only be reached by ferry.
There is also a second ferry route from CBD Belapur Jetty in Navi Mumbai. This route is shorter and may be convenient for visitors staying in Navi Mumbai or nearby areas.
However, this guide focuses on the more popular Gateway of India route, which the author personally used and can describe from first-hand experience. The map below shows the ferry route from the Gateway of India in Mumbai to Elephanta Island, where the Elephanta Caves are located.
A visitor information board near the Gateway of India provides a map of the Colaba Tourist District and highlights many of the neighborhood’s historic landmarks and attractions. See Colaba Tourist District Information Board near the Gateway of India for additional information.
Reaching the Gateway of India
The Gateway of India, Mumbai
The Gateway of India is one of Mumbai’s most iconic landmarks and is easily accessible by bus, train, taxi, and ride-sharing services. Built in 1924 on the waterfront at Apollo Bunder, it is also the main departure point for ferries to Elephanta Island.
The distance from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport to the Gateway of India is about 17 miles (28 km), with a typical travel time of 45 to 90 minutes, depending on traffic. The nearest major railway stations are:
Churchgate Railway Station — about 1.3 miles away
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus — about 2 miles away
Visitor Tip: To enter the Gateway of India area, all visitors must pass through a security checkpoint equipped with metal detectors, and bags may be subject to inspection. To avoid missing your ferry, especially on weekends and holidays, plan to arrive at least 30 minutes before departure.
Purchasing Ferry Tickets
Apollo Bunder, beside the Gateway of India, is Mumbai’s historic waterfront and the departure point for ferries to Elephanta Island and other destinations in Mumbai Harbour.
Once inside the Gateway of India premises, walk toward the sea-facing side of the monument. The ferry terminal, also known as Apollo Bunder Terminal, is located here.
There may not be a formal ticket counter. In many cases, ferry tickets are sold by a person standing near the terminal entrance, so look for signs or ask nearby staff for the Elephanta ferry.
Elephanta Ferry Details
Departure point
Apollo Bunder Terminal, Mumbai
First ferry
Around 9:00 AM
Return ferry:
Starts around 12:00 noon
Last ferry
Around 5:30 PM, depending on season and sea conditions
Frequency
About every 30 minutes
Duration
About 1 hour each way
Fare
Around ₹300, approximately $3
Important Note: The Elephanta Caves are closed every Monday, and the tourist ferry service from the Gateway of India to Elephanta Island also does not operate on Mondays. Plan your visit between Tuesday and Sunday. Ferry schedules and fares may change due to weather, sea conditions, and operator policies. Confirm the latest timings and ticket prices at the Gateway of India before your trip.
The Ferry Ride
Elephanta Island Ferry operating between the Gateway of India and Elephanta Island
The hour-long ferry ride across Mumbai Harbor is one of the most enjoyable parts of visiting Elephanta. As the boat leaves the Gateway of India, visitors get beautiful views of Mumbai’s waterfront, including the Taj Mahal Palace, Taj Mahal Tower, the Gateway of India, boats, ships, and the busy harbor.
Passenger ferries await departure at the Gateway of India, with the historic Taj Mahal Palace (center) and the modern Taj Mahal Tower (right) forming Mumbai’s iconic waterfront skyline
Arriving at Elephanta Island
Panoramic view of the Elephanta Island jetty and ferry terminal surrounded by forest, as seen from the hillside near Main Cave
After about an hour, visitors disembark at a long jetty on Elephanta Island. A small toy train usually operates between the jetty and the base of the hill. Although the walk is not very long, many visitors enjoy taking the train, especially during hot weather.
Guides are often available near the arrival area. If you wish, you can hire one here. Guide fees may vary, but they may cost around ₹1,500, approximately $15.
Climbing to the Caves
From the end of the toy train route—or from the jetty if you choose to walk—you begin climbing approximately 120 stone steps leading to the caves.
The staircase passes through a lively market where vendors sell souvenirs, handicrafts, clothing, jewelry, snacks, and drinks. There are also small restaurants and refreshment stalls along the way.
At the top of the hill, the pathway opens into the archaeological complex containing several rock-cut caves.
Visitors begin with the magnificent Main Cave, also known as Cave 1. This cave is famous for its colossal sculptures of Shiva, including the celebrated Maheshmurti, also called the Trimurti, one of the greatest masterpieces of Indian rock-cut art.
It takes at least an hour to visit the Main Cave properly. After exiting Main Cave, visitors can continue walking to the other nearby caves. At the end of the path are Cave 5 and the toilet facilities. Cave 5 is unfinished and is closed to visitors.
Welcome to the Elephanta Caves, one of India’s most remarkable rock-cut temple complexes and a UNESCO World Heritage Site located on Elephanta Island, about 7 miles east of Mumbai Harbor.
This page serves as a central guide to all of the Elephanta content on this website. Whether you are planning a visit, exploring the history of the island, or studying its remarkable sculptures, you will find links to detailed articles covering the Main Cave, the lesser-known caves, architecture, artwork, visitor information, and practical travel tips
The information presented in these articles is based on a combination of first-hand field observations, scholarly research, and comparative study. During my visit to the Elephanta Caves, I documented the monument through extensive photography and careful on-site examination of its architecture, sculptures, and layout.
My interpretation has also been enriched by years of studying India’s architectural and cultural heritage through visits to many of the country’s most important monuments, including the rock-cut cave complexes of Ajanta, Ellora, and Badami, as well as structural temple complexes such as Aihole and Pattadakal, Belur, Halebidu, Somanathapura and Hampi. These experiences have provided valuable context for understanding the evolution of Indian temple architecture, iconography, and artistic traditions.
In addition, my travels to major cultural heritage sites across Southeast Asia—including Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in Cambodia, Prambanan and Borobudur in Java, and the Hindu temples of Bali—have offered further insights into the spread and development of Indian religious art and architecture beyond the Indian subcontinent.
The architectural descriptions and historical discussions presented here are supported by classic scholarly works, particularly Hiranand Sastri’s A Guide to Elephanta(1934), one of the earliest and most authoritative studies of the monument, together with publications of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the UNESCO World Heritage Center, and other respected academic sources.
Many of these monuments are described in detail elsewhere on this website, allowing readers to explore the broader development of Indian and Southeast Asian temple architecture across different regions and periods.
While every effort has been made to ensure historical accuracy, any interpretations or conclusions presented in these articles are my own.
Selected References
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Elephanta Caves. https://asi.nic.in
Sastri, Hiranand. A Guide to Elephanta. Archaeological Survey of India, 1934.
Burgess, James. The Cave Temples of India. London: W. H. Allen, 1880.
Dhavalikar, M. K. Elephanta. Archaeological Survey of India.
Michell, George. The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume I: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu. Penguin Books.
Hidden in the shadow of Elephanta’s famous Main Cave, Cave 2 preserves a rare glimpse into the creation of India’s rock-cut temples. Its unfinished halls, tool marks, and abandoned chambers offer intriguing clues to one of Elephanta’s greatest mysteries—why was this cave never completed?
A short walk east of the Main Cave of Elephanta, one of the finest achievements of Indian rock-cut architecture, stands a lesser-known excavation known today as Cave 2. Overshadowed by the grandeur of its famous neighbor, it is often overlooked by visitors. Yet this unfinished cave preserves some of the most valuable clues to understanding how the Elephanta caves were created. Its rough walls, incomplete halls and chambers, visible tool marks, and associated cisterns offer a rare glimpse into the excavation process and raise one of the most intriguing questions at Elephanta: Why was Cave 2 never completed?
Several areas within Cave 2 appear to be frozen at different stages of completion. Some sections retain a rough, unfinished appearance, with uneven surfaces and partially excavated walls, while others display extensive tool marks left by craftsmen as they began dressing and leveling the rock. Together, these features provide a fascinating insight into the sequence of operations involved in transforming a solid basalt hillside into a rock-cut temple.
Planning a visit? See myHow to Reach Elephanta Caves guide for ferry information, schedules, tickets, and visitor tips.
Incomplete Facade
The façade of Cave 2 faces east and bears a striking resemblance to the northern entrance of the Main Cave. As seen in the image, the entrance is supported by four square rock-cut pillars and is flanked by two side chambers that remain unfinished. Although the cave was ultimately abandoned, the extent of the excavation demonstrates that a considerable amount of planning and labor had already been invested in the project.
One of the most revealing features of the façade is the contrast between the completed architectural elements and the rough, unworked rock that surrounds them. The pillars have been carefully shaped and finished, while the adjacent chambers and wall surfaces remain only partially excavated. These unfinished sections provide valuable clues to the sequence of excavation and suggest that work progressed in stages before coming to an abrupt halt. As a result, Cave 2 offers a rare opportunity to observe a rock-cut temple in the midst of its creation rather than in its final, completed form.
Unfinished Portico
The image shows part of the unfinished portico of Cave 2. As seen, large sections of the walls and ceiling retain a rough, unworked appearance. Numerous chisel marks are still visible on the rock surfaces, providing a rare glimpse into the techniques employed by ancient craftsmen as they excavated the cave from the living basalt hillside.
The contrast between the carefully shaped pillars and the unfinished wall and ceiling surfaces suggests that excavation and finishing progressed in distinct stages. The artisans first excavated the general layout of the cave before refining the architectural elements and smoothing the surrounding rock surfaces. In completed monuments such as Cave 1, most traces of this process were removed during the final dressing of the stone. In Cave 2, however, these marks remain remarkably well preserved, offering valuable evidence of the methods used to create Elephanta’s rock-cut temples and indicating that work ceased before the cave reached its intended form.
Roughly Excavated Passage
The narrow passage-like opening shown in the image retains an extremely rough and incomplete appearance. In a completed cave temple, such surfaces would normally have been dressed smooth and integrated into a finished architectural space. Here, however, the rough excavation preserves a rare snapshot of a monument in the midst of creation.
Compared to other areas of Cave 2, this appears to be one of the least developed parts of the cave, making its intended purpose difficult to determine. Whether this space was intended to become a subsidiary chamber or whether excavation ceased before its final purpose became apparent remains uncertain.
The contrast between the roughly excavated surfaces visible here and the more regular architectural elements elsewhere in the cave suggests that excavation and finishing progressed in stages. Whatever its original purpose,this passage provides valuable insight into the methods, challenges, and engineering skills involved in transforming a solid mass of basalt into a rock-cut temple. Its abandonment at such an early stage offers another clue to the enduring mystery of why Cave 2 was never completed.
Unfinished Northern Chamber
The image provides another view of the unfinished interior of Cave 2. Large portions of the rock remain only partially excavated, preserving the rough surfaces and tool marks left by the ancient craftsmen. Whether this space was intended to become a subsidiary shrine, a side chamber, or part of a larger architectural scheme remains uncertain. Whatever its intended purpose, the chamber stands as a reminder that Cave 2 was abandoned before its final form could emerge, preserving a unique glimpse into the creation of one of India’s remarkable rock-cut monuments. Unlike the completed spaces of the Main Cave, where the rock was carefully dressed and refined, this area appears to have been abandoned before the final stages of excavation could be carried out.
Rock-Cut Cistern
The image shows the rock-cut cistern located on the northern (right) side of Cave 2, one of two cisterns associated with the cave, the other being located on the opposite side.
Carved directly into the basalt bedrock, the cistern was designed to collect and store rainwater during the monsoon season. The dark chamber visible below the opening serves as the storage reservoir. Rainwater would have been directed into the cistern through channels cut into the surrounding rock, allowing water to accumulate during the monsoon and remain available throughout much of the year.
The cistern serves as a reminder that the builders of Elephanta were concerned not only with architecture and sculpture but also with practical necessities such as the collection and storage of freshwater. On an island surrounded by seawater, a dependable water supply was essential for daily worship, ritual activities, and the needs of priests, workers, and pilgrims.
The presence of two cisterns associated with Cave 2 is particularly significant because the cave itself was never completed. Their construction suggests that considerable planning had already gone into the development of the monument and that it was intended to function as an active temple complex. Even though excavation ultimately ceased, the water-management system demonstrates that the project had progressed well beyond the initial stages of planning.
Similar rock-cut cisterns are found at numerous cave sites across western India, including Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Karla Caves, Bhaja Caves, Kanheri Caves, and Junnar Caves. Their widespread use reflects the sophisticated understanding of hydrology possessed by ancient Indian engineers and highlights the self-sufficient nature of these rock-cut cave complexes.
Why Was the Excavation Abandoned?
The reason why Cave 2 was abandoned before its completion remains one of the enduring mysteries of Elephanta. No inscriptions, dedicatory records, or contemporary historical accounts have been discovered that identify the patron responsible for its commissioning or explain why excavation ceased.
Although scholars generally acknowledge that Cave 2 was left unfinished, few have examined the reasons for its abandonment in detail. As a result, no definitive explanation exists. The unfinished state of the cave has instead given rise to several possible theories, each attempting to explain why a project that had already progressed so far was suddenly brought to a halt. Here are some of the possibilities:
Structural Weaknesses in the Rock
One possible explanation is that the builders encountered weaknesses in the rock during excavation. Certain parts of Cave 2 display irregular surfaces, incomplete excavation, and areas that appear to have been abandoned before they could be fully developed. The damaged condition of portions of the façade also raises the possibility that structural concerns may have emerged during construction.
If Cave 2 was among the earlier excavations at Elephanta, the builders may have discovered that sections of the basalt were less suitable than anticipated for the monument they intended to create. Faced with geological challenges, they may have decided to abandon the project and redirect their efforts to more favorable locations elsewhere on the hillside.
While this theory is plausible, no direct archaeological evidence has yet been found to confirm that geological problems were responsible for the abandonment of the cave. Nevertheless, the unfinished nature of several areas continues to invite speculation that the quality of the rock may have played a role in bringing the project to an end.
Change in Patronage
Given the uncertainty surrounding the builders and patrons of the Elephanta caves, it is possible that a change in political or administrative circumstances brought work on Cave 2 to an end before it could be completed. The excavation of a large rock-cut monument required considerable financial resources, skilled craftsmen, and sustained administrative support over many years. Such projects depended heavily on the continued commitment of powerful patrons, whether rulers, local elites, or religious institutions.
Although no direct evidence supports this theory, the abandonment of major construction projects following changes in patronage is well documented throughout history, making it a plausible explanation for the unfinished state of Cave 2.
Political Upheaval
Political instability may also have contributed to the abandonment of Cave 2. The precise chronology of the Elephanta caves remains uncertain, and the identity of their original patrons continues to be debated. During the period when the caves were excavated, western India witnessed frequent political changes as regional powers competed for control of territory and trade routes.
If such upheavals occurred while Cave 2 was under construction, resources and manpower may have been redirected to more pressing concerns, causing work on the monument to cease. Large-scale projects often depended upon stable political conditions, and even a temporary disruption could have brought excavation to a halt.
Although there is no direct evidence linking a specific political event to the abandonment of Cave 2, the possibility cannot be ruled out. Given the uncertain history of the site, political upheaval remains one of several plausible explanations for why the cave was never completed.
An Unanswered Question
At present, there is insufficient evidence to determine which, if any, of these explanations is correct. One of the greatest obstacles to solving the mystery is that the sequence in which the Elephanta caves were excavated remains uncertain. Without a clear understanding of the chronology of the site, it is difficult to place Cave 2 within the broader development of the complex.
If Cave 2 was among the earliest excavations at Elephanta, geological challenges may have contributed to its abandonment. If, however, it was one of the later caves, changes in patronage, political circumstances, or shifting priorities may provide more plausible explanations.
Until new archaeological evidence comes to light, the reason Cave 2 was never completed must remain a matter of speculation. Yet it is precisely this uncertainty that makes the cave so intriguing. Frozen in an unfinished state for more than a millennium, Cave 2 continues to offer valuable insights into the process of creating a rock-cut temple while preserving one of Elephanta’s most enduring mysteries.
The Value of an Unfinished Monument
Ironically, the very fact that Cave 2 was never completed is what makes it so valuable today.
While the Main Cave reveals the grandeur and artistic achievements of Elephanta at its peak, Cave 2 offers something equally important: a glimpse into the process behind that achievement. Its rough walls, unfinished chambers, visible tool marks, and carefully planned water-management system preserve evidence of the planning, engineering, and labor required to create a rock-cut temple.
Far from being a failed monument, Cave 2 stands as a remarkable record of ancient craftsmanship. It reminds us that the great cave temples of India were not created by a “superhuman agency,” as a sixteenth-century Portuguese visitor famously remarked, but by skilled artisans whose ingenuity and perseverance transformed a solid basalt hillside into enduring works of architecture and art.
Perhaps the greatest mystery of Cave 2 is not why it was abandoned, but how much it still has to teach us about the people who built Elephanta.
More than a visitor’s guide, this article takes a deep dive into the Elephanta Main Cave, revealing the history, architecture, mythology, and engineering behind one of the world’s greatest rock-cut temples and its extraordinary sculptures of Shiva.
Exploring the history, architecture, and extraordinary rock-cut sculptures of Elephanta’s Great Cave (Cave 1).
Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, the Elephanta Caves are among the finest examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and temple art. Today, the caves are one of the most important historical monuments near Mumbai, attracting thousands of visitors from around the world. Visiting them is a fascinating experience.
Located on a hilly island locally known as Gharapuri, about five miles northeast of Apollo Bunder in Mumbai harbor, the Elephanta cave temples are an impressive work of art carved out of the basalt rock that occurs naturally on the island. The caves are famous for their exquisite carvings depicting various manifestations of Shiva, especially the three-headed Maheshmurti — one of the most iconic masterpieces of Indian rock-cut sculpture.
Elephanta Island gets its name from a giant stone elephant statue that once stood near the island’s shore. When the Portuguese discovered the island, they began calling it “Elephanta,” the Portuguese word for elephant, and the name eventually stuck. During the British period, the statue was moved to Mumbai and is now displayed at Veermata Jijabai Bhosale Udyan (formerly known as Victoria Gardens).
Altogether, there are seven rock-cut cave temples on the island—five located on the western side and the remaining two on the eastern side. Unlike the Badami caves, which follow a mantapa-style architectural layout, the Elephanta caves do not strictly adhere to a single architectural plan. Instead, their layout is more flexible, consisting of large pillared halls, subsidiary shrines, and monumental sculptural panels carved directly into the rock-cut walls.
This article focuses on the Main Cave, also known as the Great Cave or Cave 1, the largest and most elaborate of the Elephanta cave temples, dedicated to Shiva. More than a visitor’s guide, it is a comprehensive exploration of the cave’s history, architecture, engineering, mythology, and sculptural program, written for travelers, students, and anyone seeking a deeper understanding of one of the world’s greatest rock-cut monuments.
Before exploring the Main Cave itself, it is helpful to understand the historical background that shaped its architecture, sculptures, and religious significance.
Planning a visit? See myHow to Reach Elephanta Caves guide for ferry information, schedules, tickets, and visitor tips.
The Elephanta Caves Through the Centuries
Because no definitive inscription naming the builders has been found inside the caves or elsewhere, the dating and exact patronage of the Elephanta Caves remain uncertain. Most scholars believe the caves were likely built between the mid-5th and early 7th centuries CE. During this period several dynasties ruled over Elephanta Island, including the Konkan Mauryas, Badami Chalukyas, Trikutakas, Silaharas, and Rashtrakutas, and some of them may have contributed to the construction of the cave temples. Based mainly on the architectural features of the caves and stylistic analysis of the sculptures, most scholars attribute the commissioning of the caves to the local Konkan Mauryas or the Badami Chalukyas.
Because the Elephanta caves are overwhelmingly Shaiva monuments, some scholars have also suggested the Kalachuri dynasty of Mahishmati (central India, roughly 6th century CE) as possible patrons. This theory is based on their strong patronage of Shaivism and stylistic similarities between the Elephanta sculptures and sculptures found at central Indian sites associated with the Kalachuris.
Among the caves, Cave 1 (the Main Cave) is considered the earliest and most important. It was likely excavated first and served as the central temple complex. The other cave temples on the island are smaller and simpler; some are Hindu caves, while others are Buddhist caves, probably created slightly later.
The island came under Portuguese control in 1534, when the Sultan of Gujarat ceded the region to Portugal after the Treaty of Bassein. The Portuguese named the island “Elephanta” after discovering a large stone elephant sculpture near the shore (now preserved at the Dr. Bhau Daji Lad Mumbai City Museum).
During the Portuguese period, the caves suffered significant damage. Historical accounts suggest that the Main Cave was used as a cattle shed and storage for fodder. Portuguese soldiers used some of the sculptures for target practice, which explains the damaged faces and limbs seen in many of the carvings today. The caves were not used as temples during this time and gradually fell into disrepair.
In the 17th century, the island came under the control of Shivaji and later Sambhaji, as part of the expanding Maratha Empire. During Maratha rule, the caves were respected as ancient monuments, but there is little evidence of major restoration or the revival of active temple worship. The strategic location of the island in Mumbai harbor meant that it was primarily valued for military and maritime control rather than religious purposes. In 1774, the island passed to the British East India Company, and the caves gradually began attracting the attention of European scholars. Early archaeological interest eventually led to conservation efforts during the British colonial period.
After India gained independence in 1947, the Elephanta Caves came under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), which is responsible for the preservation and maintenance of many historical monuments across the country. Conservation efforts were undertaken to stabilize the rock structures, protect the sculptures, and manage visitor access to the caves.
In 1987, the caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in recognition of their outstanding rock-cut architecture and exquisitely-carved sculptures.
Main Cave: A Magnificent Cave Temple
This post is only about the Main Cave, also known as the Great Cave and Cave 1, and is the largest and most elaborate of the Elephanta cave temples, and is dedicated to Shiva.
Ground plan of the Elephanta Main Cave showing the layout of the Main Hall, central shrine, East and West Wings, courtyards, Nandi platform, and water cistern. Illustration by the author. Not drawn to scale; the relative positions and sizes of architectural elements are approximate.
The image shows the ground plan of the Main Cave complex. As seen, it consists of three principal sections: the Main Hall, the West Wing, and the East Wing. The rock-cut Main Hall has openings on its north, east, and west sides, each leading to a courtyard. Although the East and West Wings form part of the overall cave complex, they are not directly connected to the Main Hall. Instead, each wing is accessed through a courtyard adjoining the main cave.
Visitors enter the cave complex through the northern courtyard, and from here, a paved pathway leads to the northern opening of the Main Hall, the principal entrance to the Main Cave. Situated opposite the western opening of the Main Hall is the West Wing. Visitors reach it by passing through the western opening into the western courtyard and then climbing a short flight of steps. The western side of the complex is enclosed and does not provide an exit from the Main Cave.
The East Wing occupies the eastern side of the complex and is oriented at right angles to the Main Hall. Like the West Wing, it is reached through a separate courtyard and stands on an elevated platform approached by a short flight of steps. Unlike the enclosed western courtyard, the eastern courtyard remains open. Visitors can leave the Main Cave complex through the eastern corridor and ascend a modern flight of steps located on the northern side of the eastern courtyard.
The Main Hall: Architectural Elegance Through Symmetry
The layout of the Main Hall is somewhat irregular in shape, but it is symmetrical along both the east-west and north-south axes, length of each axis measuring 130ft. As mentioned, the Main Hall has three openings. The principal entrance is on the north side, while the other two openings lead to the eastern and western courtyards. These openings not only provide access to the courtyards but also allow natural light and ventilation to reach the interior of the cave.
The cubical inner sanctum (garbhagriha), which houses a Shiva Linga, is situated near the center of the Main Hall. It lies on the north-south axis but is positioned slightly west of the east-west axis. The eastern and western faces of the sanctum are aligned with the corresponding side entrances.
Instead of an opening on the south side of the hall, there is a large recessed area in the wall containing three sculptural panels. The central panel depicts the iconic Maheshmurti (8), while the two flanking panels portray other manifestations of Shiva.
Principal Entrance
As seen in the image below, the northern courtyard lies directly in front of the Main Hall. A short flight of steps leads from the courtyard to the elevated platform of the cave temple.
As mentioned earlier, the northern opening of the Main Hall serves as the principal entrance to the Main Cave complex. The image above shows the northern courtyard and the pathway leading to the cave, together with a front view of the Main Hall. Carved directly into the basalt rock of the hillside, the entrance blends naturally with the surrounding landscape. The entrance façade, measuring approximately 120 ft wide and 40 ft high, is framed by four finely carved pillars—two in the middle and one at each end. These pillars create the impression of supporting the massive rock-cut structure above.
The façade bears a strong resemblance to those of the Badami caves. However, unlike the Badami caves, which typically have a single entrance opening, the Main Hall of has three openings—one on the north side and one each on the east and west sides.
Western and Eastern Entrances
The image on the left shows the western entrance to the Main Hall. Like the principal entrance, it is supported by two central pillars flanked by a pilaster at either end. At the rear, the western wall of the garbhagriha (inner sanctum) is visible, along with its doorway and a large dvarapala (door keeper) standing on the left side. The view of the dvarapala on the right side is blocked by one of the pillars.
The image on the right shows two façades meeting at right angles: the eastern entrance to the Main Hall on the right and the entrance to the East Wing on the left, both sharing a common courtyard. Carved directly out of the basalt rock of the hillside, these pillared entrances appear naturally integrated with the contours of the surrounding cliff.
Interior: Architectural Design at Its Finest
As mentioned, the Main Hall exhibits a remarkable degree of symmetry along both the east-west and north-south axes. It is supported by rows of pillars arranged in a grid-like pattern along these two axes. The spaces between the rows form aisles running along the east-west axis, giving the interior the appearance of a grand pillared hall.
The mantapa measures approximately 130 ft from the northern entrance to the rear wall and about the same distance from the eastern entrance to the western entrance. The height of the hall varies between 15 ft and 17 ft; in other words, neither the floor nor the ceiling is perfectly level.
The hall is divided into six aisles, each roughly 16 ft deep. There is a stepped increase in width through the second and third aisles on the northern side and a corresponding increase through the sixth and fifth aisles on the southern side. Architecturally, these aisles may be grouped into three distinct sections: the Front Hall, the Central Hall, and the Rear Hall.
The third through fifth aisles span the full width of the hall, approximately 130 ft, and together form the rectangular Central Hall (sabhamantapa). The garbhagriha is situated slightly west of the center of this space. This space served as the principal congregational area where devotees gathered for worship and religious ceremonies.
The Front Hall consists of the first and second aisles, while the Rear Hall is formed by the sixth aisle and the large recessed sculptural enclosure carved into the southern wall of the cave.
Front Hall
The first aisle from the northern entrance forms the portico (mukhamantapa) and has the same width as the entrance façade, approximately 54 ft. The southern side of this aisle contains two free-standing pillars aligned with the two central pillars of the northern entrance. The outer pillars are attached to the cave walls, just as they are at the entrance façade. At each end of the portico, between the end pillar of the entrance and the corresponding end pillar on the southern side, is a recessed sculptural panel. The Nataraja Shiva panel (1) is carved into the western recess, while the Mahayogi Shiva panel (2) is carved into the eastern recess.
The second aisle is slightly wider than the first and contains no sculptural panels on its lateral walls. It is supported by two end pillars attached to the cave walls and four free-standing pillars in between.
Central Hall (Sabhamantapa)
The third aisle has no lateral walls and opens directly to the eastern and western entrances. However, at its northwestern and northeastern corners, sculptural panels are carved into recessed bays. The Andhakasura-Vadha panel (3) is on the western side of the aisle, whereas the Ravananugraha panel (4) is on the eastern side.
The third, fourth, and fifth aisles are interrupted on the western side by the inner sanctum (garbhagriha). Because of this interruption, the third aisle contains four free-standing pillars on both the northern and southern sides of the sanctum. Captured from the eastern entrance, the image below shows part of the mantapa and the rows of pillars belonging to these aisles. At the far end of the hall stands the inner sanctum housing the Shiva Linga.
As mentioned, the fifth aisle mirrors the third aisle and contains two sculptural panels carved into recesses at either end of the southern wall. The Kalyanasundara Murti panel (5) is on the western side, whereas the Shiva-Parvati panel (6) is on the eastern side.
Rear Hall
Beyond this lies the sixth aisle, which mirrors the second aisle. Like the second aisle, it contains no sculptural panels on its side walls and is supported by two end pillars attached to the cave walls and four free-standing pillars in between.
Adjoining the southern side of the sixth aisle is a large recessed enclosure carved into the rear wall of the cave. Although this space mirrors the portico in its overall arrangement, it differs in one important respect: there is no opening on the southern side. Instead, its southern wall contains three sculptural panels carved side by side into deep recesses. At the center is the iconic Maheshmurti (7), flanked by Gangadhara Shiva (8) on the east and Ardhanarishvara (9) on the west.
Pillars and Architectural Features
As seen in the image, each pillar appears to have been designed with aesthetics in mind. Although no two pillars are exactly alike, most follow a similar overall design. Each free-standing pillar consists of a square base surmounted by a vase-like circular element. Above this rises a cushion-shaped capital, one of the most distinctive features of Elephanta’s architectural style.
Adding to the beauty of the pillars is the fluting—narrow vertical grooves carved into the surfaces of both the vase-like element and the capital. Small sculpted figures are carved at the corners of the upper portion of the base, although many have been damaged or weathered over the centuries.
Massive stone beams connect the capitals of the pillars and run primarily along the east-west axis, helping to define the aisles of the hall. The spaces between these beams form ceiling panels that are believed to have once been decorated with painted murals, traces of which have long since disappeared. The pillars of Elephanta Cave 1 bear a strong resemblance to those of the Ellora caves, particularly Cave 29, and differ noticeably from the pillars found in the Badami caves. This similarity has often been noted by scholars when discussing the architectural traditions of western Indian rock-cut monuments.
Paintings and Decorative Finishes
What many visitors fail to realize is that the interior of the Main Cave was once far more colorful and visually striking than it appears today. The bare stone surfaces visible now are only a shadow of the monument’s original appearance.
Over the centuries, the combined effects of weathering, vandalism, and neglect have erased most traces of the decorative finishes that once adorned the cave. Evidence from Portuguese and later British-period visitors indicates that parts of the interior were painted and coated with decorative materials. Contemporary accounts mention painted ceilings, coated pillars, and sculptural panels whose figures were embellished with color.
Today, only faint traces of these embellishments survive. Yet these historical descriptions allow us to imagine the splendor and grandeur of the temple during its heyday—a sacred space whose towering pillars, monumental sculptures, and painted surfaces would have created a far more vibrant and awe-inspiring experience than the weathered stone interior seen today.
The Sarvatobhadra Shrine: A Four-Doored Inner Sanctum
Situated slightly west of the center of the Central Hall, the garbhagriha (inner sanctum) is a cubical enclosure with a stone Shiva Linga installed at its center.
It is a Sarvatobhadra shrine (Sanskrit: sarvatobhadra), meaning “auspicious on all sides.” Square in plan, it has entrances on all four cardinal directions, allowing devotees to perform pradakshina (circumambulation) and approach the shrine from any direction for worship.
The floor of the garbhagriha is approximately 3.5 ft higher than that of the central hall and can be reached from all four sides by short flights of steps. Each entrance is flanked by large dvarapalas (door keepers), symbolizing the constant protection of the sacred space and the Shiva Linga within.
There are eight dvarapalas in total, each standing approximately 15 ft high, meaning that the sculptures occupy nearly the full height of the mantapa. The sculptors did a remarkable job of making these guardian figures appear both awe-inspiring and dignified. Their imposing size conveys strength and authority, while their graceful poses and refined features lend them an air of nobility.
Every dvarapala wears a yajnopavita (sacred thread) and a variety of finely carved jewelry, including necklaces and armlets. Their headgear varies from jatamukuta (matted locks arranged as a crown) to ornate royal crowns. Some are accompanied by dwarf attendants standing beside them.
The doorways themselves are elegantly designed, with multiple recessed frames that enhance their architectural richness and visual depth.
The left image below shows the east-facing entrance to the garbhagriha. As seen, the shrine is approached by a short flight of steps, and the entrance is guarded by towering dvarapalas on either side.
At the center of the garbhagriha stands the Shiva Linga (see the right image), installed on a square pitha (pedestal) measuring approximately 9 ft on each side and about 3 ft high.
As seen in the image, the linga consists of two parts: an upper cylindrical portion, approximately 3 ft high, and a lower square section. The lower section is not fully visible because it is firmly embedded within the pitha. Unlike the surrounding cave architecture, which was carved directly from the living basalt rock, the linga itself does not appear to have been cut from the same stone. Instead, it seems to have been sculpted from a harder, darker stone and then installed within the shrine.
In contrast, the garbhagrihas of mantapa-style cave temples such as those at Badami are typically located at the rear of the hall and usually have only a single entrance. As a result, circumambulation within the sanctum itself is not possible. The four-sided Sarvatobhadra design of the Elephanta shrine is therefore one of the features that distinguishes Cave 1 from the Badami cave temples. A similar arrangement, however, can be seen in Cave 29 at Ellora.
Sculptural Panels: Masterpieces of Indian Temple Art
Known for its architectural brilliance and grandeur, the Main Cave of Elephanta is also renowned for its exquisitely carved sculptural panels, which portray the many facets of Shiva as creator, preserver, and destroyer. Although Shiva is traditionally regarded as the destroyer within the Hindu Trinity, at Elephanta he is presented as the supreme cosmic force who encompasses and transcends all three functions.
The Main Hall contains nine major sculptural panels arranged in a carefully planned and symmetrical manner. As visitors enter through the northern entrance and pass into the Front Hall, beginning with the portico (mukhamantapa), they are immediately presented with two contrasting manifestations of Shiva. The Nataraja panel (1) in the western recess depicts Shiva performing his vigorous cosmic dance, embodying divine energy and movement. Directly opposite, the Mahayogi panel (2) in the eastern recess portrays Shiva as the supreme ascetic, absorbed in deep meditation. Together, these two panels introduce the visitor to the dual nature of Shiva—dynamic and contemplative, active and transcendent.
The Central Hall (sabhamantapa), formed by the third, fourth, and fifth aisles, opens into entrances on both the east and west sides.
At each corner of this hall is a recess containing a sculptural panel. In the northwestern corner is the Andhakasura-Vadha panel (3), while the northeastern corner contains the Ravananugraha panel (4). In the former, Shiva manifests as the destroyer of evil and slays the demon Andhaka, who, intoxicated by power, tormented the devas (demigods) and the world. In the latter, Shiva humbles Ravana, the mighty king of Lanka. Inflated by pride after his victories, Ravana attempted to demonstrate his strength by lifting and shaking Mount Kailasa, the abode of Shiva. In response, Shiva effortlessly pressed down the mountain with his toe, trapping Ravana beneath it and teaching him a lesson in humility.
The southern side of the central hall is devoted to Shiva’s family. The southwestern corner contains the Kalyanasundara Murti panel (5), depicting the divine wedding of Shiva and Parvati, while the southeastern corner features the Shiva–Parvati panel (6), portraying a more intimate and domestic aspect of their family life. Together, these two sculptures present Shiva not only as the supreme deity but also as a husband and householder, complementing the cosmic and ascetic aspects of his personality depicted elsewhere in the cave.
Beyond the Central Hall lies the rear hall with a aisle and a large bay with three adjoining recessed enclosures facing north, each containing a magnificent sculptural panel. Together, these three panels present Shiva as the all-pervasive and supreme deity. At the center is the celebrated Maheshmurti (8), a large three-faced bust of Shiva and one of the greatest masterpieces of Indian rock-cut art. To its right (i.e., east) is the Ardhanarishvara panel (9), which portrays Shiva as a fusion of male and female forms, symbolizing the unity and complementarity of masculine and feminine energies. To its left (i.e., west) is the Gangadhara panel (8), depicting Shiva receiving the celestial river Ganga in his matted locks and gently releasing it to the earth, thereby preserving the world from destruction.
West Wing: A Small but Impressive Rock-Cut Shrine Dedicated to Shiva
The West Wing of the Main Cave is a smaller rock-cut excavation situated parallel to the Main Hall. Unlike the Main Hall, it has only a single entrance facing east and is accessible solely through a courtyard shared with the western side of the Main Hall. Visitors reach the courtyard by descending a flight of steps from the western entrance of the Main Hall and then ascending another short flight of steps to enter the West Wing. Much of this courtyard was itself created by excavating the surrounding basalt rock. Because the courtyard is enclosed on all sides, it does not provide an exit from the cave complex but instead serves as a transitional space between the two excavations.
On the southern side of the courtyard lies a large rock-cut water cistern measuring approximately 66 feet (20 m) long, 55 feet (17 m) wide, and 17 feet (5.2 m) deep. A protective barrier now prevents visitors from approaching the cistern. During archaeological clearance in the 1920s, the accumulated silt was removed, after which the cistern was allowed to refill naturally with water.
The excavation of the silt yielded several important artifacts, including a copper vessel bearing a Sanskrit inscription in the Devanagari script. The inscription records the date (15 April 1086 CE), the place (Sripuri of the goddess Jogeshvari), and the weight of the vessel (194 palas of copper). The vessel most likely fell accidentally into the cistern and is believed to have been used either by a temple priest or by a pilgrim who brought it as an offering.
The excavation also uncovered fragments of stone sculptures and numerous earthenware pots. Many of these recovered artifacts, including the copper vessel, are now preserved in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (formerly the Prince of Wales Museum) in Mumbai.
The West Wing is itself a shrine dedicated to Shiva. The façade measures approximately 27 feet (8.2 m) wide and 8 feet 11 inches (2.7 m) high, while the interior extends about 13 feet 7 inches (4.1 m) deep. As seen in the accompanying images, the façade is supported by two stone pillars with cushion-shaped capitals, characteristic of the architectural style of the Elephanta Caves. A short flight of steps leads to the elevated platform of the shrine.
At the rear of the shrine is the garbhagriha, which houses a Shiva Linga. The doorway is flanked by two large dvarapalas (door keepers), while a Shiva Linga stands at the center of the sanctum on a square pedestal. The pedestal is set into an altar-like structure hewn directly from the living rock. Like the lingas in the Main Hall and East Wing, the linga and its pedestal appear to have been carved from a separate stone and installed after the excavation of the shrine. Viewed from the doorway, the sanctum is enclosed by thick walls, and two recessed bands frame the entrance, creating a simple yet elegant doorway.
Between the entrance and the inner sanctum is a small hall (mukhamantapa or portico), where devotees would have gathered before entering the sanctum. Carved on the northern wall of this vestibule is the Shiva in Meditation panel (10) depicting Shiva seated on a lotus pedestal in deep meditation. Similar to the Mahayogi Shiva panel (2) in the Main Hall, this relief portrays Shiva as the supreme yogi (ascetic) and is likewise believed to reflect the influence of the Lakulisha tradition.
East Wing: An Exquisite Rock-Cut Shrine Dedicated to Shiva
Unlike the West Wing, which runs parallel to the Main Hall, the East Wing extends perpendicular to it, much like the transept of a church. It is larger, architecturally more elaborate, and contains a richer sculptural program. The East Wing shares a common courtyard with the eastern entrance of the Main Hall. The pillars at its entrance appear smoother and less weathered because they are not original; most were reconstructed during modern conservation and restoration work.
Unlike the relatively plain adhiṣṭhāna (temple base) of the Main Hall, the East Wing rests on a more elaborate four-tiered base. The lowest level consists of a thin moulded plinth featuring a chandrashila, a decorative semicircular threshold stone, at its center. Above it is a narrow terrace reached by a single step. The third level, set slightly higher than the second, is approached by a gracefully designed flight of steps. The fourth and uppermost level forms the platform of the shrine itself and stands one step above the third level.
In the courtyard stands a circular stone platform measuring approximately 16 feet (4.9 m) in diameter and about 2 inches (5 cm) high. This platform once supported a statue of Nandi, Shiva’s sacred bull and vahana (vehicle). As in most Shiva temples, Nandi would have faced the sanctum, symbolizing unwavering devotion and eternal vigilance toward Shiva.
Unlike the enclosed courtyard of the West Wing, the East Wing courtyard is open on its northern side, where a flight of steps leads out of the cave. Today, most visitors exit the Main Cave through this passage after completing their tour of the East Wing.
Like the Main Hall and the West Wing, the East Wing is dedicated to Shiva and contains a garbhagriha (inner sanctum) housing a Shiva Linga. The sanctum is a square chamber measuring approximately 14 feet by 16 feet (4.3 × 4.9 m) and faces north. Unlike the central shrine of the Main Hall, which has four entrances, the East Wing sanctum is entered through a single doorway. However, like the Main Hall, it is surrounded by a pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path), allowing devotees to walk around the sanctum as part of their ritual worship.
On either side of the sanctum, the circumambulatory passage emerges through openings guarded by large sculptural reliefs of dvarapalas. When viewed from the front, the shrine appears to be protected by two imposing dvarapalas standing on either side of the sanctum doorway, separated by the approximately eight-foot-wide passage used by devotees during pradakshina (circumambulation).
The doorway of the garbhagriha is richly ornamented. Its frame is composed of four recessed bands, each carved in the form of a pilaster set at a different level. The outermost band is decorated with a geometric square-wave pattern, while the inner recessed bands display the refined craftsmanship characteristic of the Elephanta sculptors.
Within the sanctum, the Shiva Linga stands on a square pedestal (pitha) set into an altar-like base carved directly from the living rock. The linga itself, however, is made from a separate stone and appears to have been inserted into the pedestal after the excavation of the shrine.
The Hall of the Ashta Matrikas
On either side of the portico is a rectangular hall supported by two central pillars and pilasters attached to the side walls. The floor of the eastern hall is recessed below the surrounding level, allowing water seeping through the basalt rock to collect there.
The hall on the western side, measuring approximately 25 feet long, 11 feet wide, and 11 feet high, is one of the most important spaces in the East Wing. It is entered from the eastern side through the portico and is enclosed on the remaining three sides by walls, each carved with a large sculptural panel. The northern wall contains the Ganesha panel (11), the western wall is occupied by the magnificent Ashta Matrikas panel (12), and the southern wall depicts Kartikeya (13).
The hall derives its name from the impressive Ashta Matrikas panel, one of the finest sculptural compositions in the East Wing and among the most significant depictions of the Eight Divine Mothers at Elephanta. The relief portrays the eight Matrikas, divine mother goddesses who personify the shaktis (divine energies or powers) of the principal Hindu deities. Together, they are collectively known as the Ashta Matrikas (Eight Divine Mothers). At the right end of the composition are two male figures, generally identified as Ganesha and Virabhadra.
Unfortunately, the relief has suffered extensive weathering and damage over the centuries, making many of the individual figures difficult to recognize with the naked eye. The photographs presented here have therefore been carefully enhanced to reveal details that are otherwise difficult to discern, allowing viewers to better appreciate the remarkable craftsmanship of the original sculpture.
As seen in the panel, each Matrika carries a dhvaja (a staff bearing an identifying emblem). These emblems typically depict the vahana (vehicle) associated with the corresponding male deity whose shakti (divine power) the Matrika embodies. Several of the Matrikas are also shown carrying children, emphasizing their maternal nature as nurturing mother goddesses and divine protectors.
The Matrikas are closely associated with the mythological episode of Andhakasura-Vadha (the slaying of Andhakasura). According to one version of the legend, Shiva enlisted the Matrikas — created by Vishnu — to assist him in his battle against the powerful asura king Andhaka. Their role was to prevent each drop of Andhaka’s blood from falling to the ground, where it would generate another demon, thereby enabling Shiva to defeat him.
The Lasting Legacy
Despite centuries of weathering, vandalism, and natural erosion, the Elephanta Caves remain among the greatest achievements of Indian rock-cut architecture. At the heart of the complex stands the Main Cave, the largest and most elaborate of the island’s cave temples. Its massive pillars, carefully proportioned halls, precisely excavated sanctums, and exquisitely sculpted panels demonstrate not only exceptional artistic achievement but also remarkable engineering mastery.
Carved entirely from a single mass of basalt rock, the monument stands as a testament to the extraordinary skill of its builders, whose ability to create perfectly aligned halls, pillars, shrines, and sculptures continues to inspire admiration more than fourteen centuries later. Its remarkable sculptural program portrays the many facets of Shiva—as creator, preserver, destroyer, ascetic, householder, and supreme deity—while the soaring spaces of the Main Hall and the more intimate shrines of the East and West Wings together form a unified religious and artistic vision.
For today’s visitors, the Main Cave offers far more than an opportunity to admire ancient sculptures. It provides a window into the religious beliefs, mythology, architectural ingenuity, and artistic excellence of early medieval India. Whether viewed through the eyes of a traveler, a student, or a researcher, the monument continues to reveal new insights with every visit, reaffirming its place among India’s most enduring cultural treasures.
The builders of this magnificent masterpiece are long gone, but their enduring legacy lives on in the Main Cave of Elephanta.
References
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Elephanta: A World Heritage Monument. Mumbai Circle, Archaeological Survey of India.
Archaeological Survey of India. Indian Archaeology – A Review. Various issues. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
Fergusson, James, and James Burgess. The Cave Temples of India. London: W. H. Allen & Co., 1880.
Michell, George. The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu. London: Penguin Books, 1989.
Spink, Walter M. The Great Cave at Elephanta. Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co.
Carved into the red sandstone cliffs overlooking Agastya Lake, the cave temples of Badami are masterpieces of Early Chalukya temple art. Built between the 6th and 8th centuries CE, these rock-cut shrines feature intricate sculptures and elegant mantapa-style architecture. Together, they represent one of the finest examples of early Hindu and Jain cave temples in India.
Carved out of a red sandstone hill overlooking the beautiful Agastya Lake, the four cave temples of Badami are great works of religious art and a showcase of Chalukya temple architecture. Because of their stunningly beautiful carvings—enhanced by the color and pleasant texture of the red sandstone—they stand out among the cave temples of India. Visiting them is a fascinating experience.
The rock-cut cave temples were constructed by meticulously carving out the stone material from the rock to create beautiful structures, sculptures, and sculptural reliefs. It is mind-boggling how the ancient Indians managed to carve such magnificent temples out of rocks without the aid of sophisticated machinery or tools.
A Bit of History
Built by the Badami Chalukyas between the 6th and 8th century CE, these rock-cut cave temples are the forerunners of the religious monuments built in Southern India. Besides these cave temples, Chalukyas built many freestanding temples in and around Badami. The dynasties that followed continued this tradition, and temple building flourished across the region. Hundreds of beautiful temples, big and small, dedicated to different gods and goddesses, now dot the landscape of Karnataka and the surrounding regions.
Overview of the Cave Complex
Built next to each other and connected via stone staircases, the four cave temples are labeled Cave 1, Cave 2, Cave 3, and Cave 4, based on the sequence of their approach from the main entrance to the temple complex. In other words, you would visit Cave 1 first and Cave 4 last.
The chronological order of their construction is not known because of the lack of inscriptions. Only Cave 3 has inscription detailing its dating. Nevertheless, it is generally believed that they were excavated in the same sequence as their approach.
Mantapa-Style Architecture
Each rock-cut cave temple has a courtyard, with the temple structure elevated above it. The façades of all four temples are rectangular, with a central flight of steps leading to the interior. When viewed from the courtyard, the rectangular façade appears as though it is embedded within a massive rock face. Within this façade, a row of pillars extends from the base to the ceiling of the temple.
All four caves follow the mantapa-style architectural layout, consisting of an inner sanctum and three distinct sections.
The garbhagriha (inner sanctum) is located at the rear of the cave, preceded by three successive pillared halls: the antarala (ante-chamber), the sabhamantapa (main hall), and the mukhamantapa (verandah).
Garbhagriha (Inner Sanctum): The garbhagriha is a small chamber carved into the rock at the rear of the cave. This is where the principal deity of the temple is housed.
Antarala (Ante-chamber): The antarala is a small hall between the garbhagriha and the sabhamantapa. It serves as a transitional space where rituals or offerings may be performed before entering the garbhagriha. A short flight of steps leads from the antarala into the sanctum.
Sabhamantapa (Congregation Hall): The sabhamantapa is a large hall adjoining the antarala, supported by rows of pillars. It serves as a congregation space where devotees gather before proceeding to worship. The hall shares a row of pillars with the antarala on the sanctum side and with the mukhamantapa on the courtyard side.
Mukhamantapa (Verandah or Porch): The mukhamantapa is a narrow hall between the sabhamantapa and the entrance. The squarish pillars on the side facing the courtyard are visible on the cave facade. This hall is often the most ornate part of the cave, with narrative reliefs carved on the lateral walls and ceiling depicting stories related to the temple’s theme.
The Four Cave Temples at a Glance
Each of the four cave temples at Badami is dedicated to a different deity or religious tradition and contains distinctive sculptural reliefs depicting important mythological themes.
Facades of the four cave temples of Badami
The following table provides a quick overview of the caves, their dedications, and their carvings.
Situated on the eastern side of the Patio de la Montería and next to the glamorous Pedro I Palace in the Real Alcázar complex, Casa de Contratación is an unremarkable Renaissance-style building. By its appearance, it is hard to imagine that the decisions made here changed the course of history. It was here many famous and infamous seafarers got approval and funding for their expeditions and brought back the looted riches from the New World. Many European countries who followed in the footsteps of Casa de Contratación to create their trade organizations – such as the East India companies – eventually ended up colonizing a large part of the world, to the detriment of indigenous people and their culture all over the world.
The original building that housed the Casa de Contratación had three halls, two of which have been well-preserved. These are the Admiral’s Hall and the Hall of Audiences. This page describes them with images of their interior and the paintings on display on their walls.
A building of great historical significance
Situated on the eastern side of the Patio de la Montería and next to the glamorous Pedro I Palace is a building that is of great historical significance to the entire world. The decisions made in this unremarkable building changed the course of history. It was home to the first headquarters of the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade), an organization established in Seville to control trade in the Americas. It was here many famous and infamous seafarers got approval and funding for their expeditions and brought back the looted riches from the New World. Many European nations who followed in the footsteps of Casa de Contratación to create their own trade organizations – such as the East India companies – eventually ended up colonizing a large part of the world, to the detriment of indigenous peoples and their cultures all over the world.
The Casa de Contratación building is part of Real Alcázar of Seville, a large complex consisting of palaces, administrative buildings, and gardens built/rebuilt by different cultures from the middle ages to the modern era. Designated in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site – along with the Seville Cathedral and the General Archive of the Indies – the Real Alcázar is one of the most visited attractions in the world.
A bit of history
The need for an organization to control the voyages arose because of the problems arising from the success of Columbus’s first voyage to the Americas in 1492. It opened the floodgates of expeditions, and chaos ensued due to the uncontrollable conquests by the navigators, resulting in mutinies and rebellion in the New World.
Because there was no entity controlling the traffic to and from the Americas, the Crown had little knowledge of what was happening in the New World. Another important reason was that there was no accounting of the goods that arrived in Spain, and therefore no taxes were paid to the Crown.
To fix these problems, Queen Isabella I of Castile established the Casa de Contratación in 1503, with a mandate to regulate the trade in the Americas. Although it was a commercial organization, somewhat similar to the more notorious East India companies of the later yeas, it had broader powers that extended beyond trade. Besides approving the expeditions and training and licensing navigators, it collected taxes and acted as a court of law to settle trade disputes.
It was also a scientific organization responsible for creating maps of the trade routes and newly discovered territories and maintaining their secrecy. Many famous cartographers of the 16th century worked here. For example, Juan de la Cosa, who was working as a cartographer here, created his famous first world map, which included the New World. Note that he was also a navigator who accompanied Christopher Columbus in the first three voyages.
The Spanish Crown chose Seville as the first headquarters of Casa de Contratación because of its strategic location, which provided many advantages. After the discovery of the New World, Seville became the hub of international trade. It was an inland port on the banks of the Guadalquivir River, about 50 miles from the ocean. While the high navigability of this river made it easier to access the ocean, Seville’s distance from the ocean provided security from attacks by the sea, especially from pirates. Its location also made it easier to access inland areas for distributing goods from the New World.
The Casa de Contratación remained in this building until 1598 and was moved to the current location of the Archive of the Indies (Used to be known as Lonja de Mercaderes). After Seville lost its importance, primarily because the Guadalquivir River became less navigable due to silting, the Casa de Contratación was transferred in 1717 to the port city of Cádiz. It remained there until King Charles IV abolished in 1790.
As a side note, Spain’s rival Portugal also had its own house of trade known as the Casa da Índia (House of Índia), established in 1500 in Lisbon by King Manuel I of Portugal. It funded the voyages of Vasco da Gama, who discovered the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope.
Old building with a new appearance
The original building that housed Casa de Contratación was built over existing Moorish structures. In the next two centuries after its inceptuin, the building endured many calamities, such as fires and earthquakes, and fell into disrepair. It was reconstructed in 1805 with a new facade and remodeled in 1973 with its current appearance.
The Casa de Contratación occupied three halls, two of which have been well-preserved. These are the Admiral’s Hall and the Hall of Audiences.
Admiral’s Hall
Although this hall was part of Casa de Contratación, it got its name for a different reason. It was the headquarters of the Tribunal del Almirantazgo de Castilla (Admiralty of Court of Castile).
When this hall was part of the Casa de Contratación headquarters, many famous (and infamous) explorers from Spain and the neighboring countries visited this hall for a variety of reasons. Here are some examples:
Christopher Columbus met Queen Isabella met after his second voyage to the Americas in the hope of getting funding for his future expeditions.
Ferdinand Magellan, an explorer from the rival Portugal who changed his allegiance to Spain, visited this hall to convince the head of Casa de Contratación to approve his expedition to the Moluccas.
Amerigo Vespucci, an explorer from Italy responsible for naming America, worked here as the chief pilot to train the navigators and was also involved in licensing them before they went on voyages to the New World.
Admiral’s Room
The above image shows part of the Admiral’s Hall, which is still in active use; Occasionally, it hosts small conferences. As you can see, it has a stage and seating arrangement for the attendees. Decorating its walls are exquisite paintings, most of which are portraits of famous figures.
Here is a brief description of the paintings that are visible in the image:
Center – The inauguration of the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929 by Alfonso Grosso
Left – Queen María Cristina de Borbón-Dos Sicilias painted by Carlos Blanco in 19th century
Right – Antonio de Orleans – Duke of Montpensier by painted Franz Xaver Winterhalter in the 19th century.
A large oil painting on canvas and beautiful portraits of kings, queens, and nobility covers the other part of the hall. Listed below are these paintings.
Portraits of famous figures
Portraits on display at the Admiral’s Hall
The portrait in the left-most image shows King Ferdinand VII of Spain painted by Carlos Blanco in the 19th century. King Ferdinand VII was the king of Spain twice. His first reign was in 1808, which lasted a few months, and the second in 1813, which lasted until he died in 1833.
The middle image depicts King Louis Philippe I of France painted by Franz Xaver Winterhalter sometime in the 19th century. Louis Philippe I (1773 – 1850) was the last king of France. He reigned from 1830 to 1848. In 1809, he married Princess Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily, daughter of King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Maria Carolina of Austria, and also the niece of Marie Antoinette. The right-most image is her portrait painted by Franz Xaver Winterhalter in 1842. She is known as Queen Maria Amelia de Borbón-Dos Sicilias.
Las postrimerías de Fernando III el Santo (Last Moments of Ferdinand III the Saint)
This masterpiece is an oil painting on canvas (size 400 cm x 750 cm). Painted by Virgilio Mattoni, it depicts the last moments of Ferdinand III, the king of Castile, who captured Seville in 1248 from the Almohads. He died in Seville on May 30, 1252, and was later canonized in the 17th century.
Last Moments of Fernando III the Saint, a masterpiece by Virgilio Mattoni
Virgilio Mattoni, a native son of Seville, painted this work for the National Exhibition of 1887 to show his special connection to the city of Seville. This acclaimed work secured the second position in the exhibition.
The inspiration for the painting came from a passage described in the Chronicle of Spain, a compilation of historical accounts commissioned by Alfonso X the Wise, the son and successor to King Ferdinand III.
The mood of the scene in the painting is somber. Dressed in a white gown, King Ferdinand III has his head lowered and is falling on his knees as two monks are holding his arms up to form a cross. As he is about to die, the Archbishop standing in front of him is holding up the Eucharist with his hands as kings courtiers are anxiously watching the spectacle. Also seen is his queen, Joan of Dammartin, who collapsed on a cushion.
Hall of Audiences
It is much more ornate than the Admiral’s Hall. As you can see from the image below, the ceiling is covered with Mudéjar-style decoration. This hall used to serve as a chapel.
Hall of Audiences
On display in this hall is the altarpiece installed to make this hall a chapel so that the visitors, especially the navigators who were about to embark on a voyage, could attend a religious service or pray.
Virgin of the Navigators
In the central panel of the altarpiece is La Virgen de los Navegantes (Virgin of the Navigators), a masterpiece painted by the Spanish painter Alejo Fernández sometime between 1531 and 1536. As you can see, the Virgin Mary is up in the clouds looking down at the ships floating in the sea. Her mantle covers many famous seafarers, including Christopher Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci, and indigenous people of the Americas. Flanking the central painting are the portraits of St. Sebastian, St. James the Great, St. Elmo, and St. John the Evangelist.
Virgin of the Navigators – A painting on the central panel of the altarpiece
Replica of La Santa Maria
On display to the left side of the altarpiece is a model of La Santa Maria, one of the three ships that sailed from Seville as part of Christopher Columbus’s first voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492.
Model of La Santa Maria
La Santa Maria was the flagship for the expedition and the largest of the three, the other two being La Niña and La Pinta. It had a crew of 40 sailors when they set sail from Seville. After reaching the Americas, it hit a reef and was shipwrecked somewhere near Haiti on the Christmas day of 1492. Because the ship suffered considerable damage, Columbus ordered his crew salvaged its timber then abandoned it. Its remains has not been discovered yet. Columbus and his crew returned to Spain on La Niña.
There is no record of the exact measurements and capacity of La Santa Maria. Its size was estimated based on the anecdotal evidence provided by Columbus’s crew. Based on this estimate, the Santa Maria was about 58 ft long and had three masts. The replica of Santa Maria shown in the image was built at the Museo Maritimo de Barcelona, Spain, under the supervision of the museum director.
The wall behind the model carries a banner with the insignia of the crown of Castile y León and similar banners cover the rest of the wall.
The palace of Pedro I is considered a masterpiece of Mudéjar art and architecture and is a testament to Spain’s multicultural roots. It owes its name to King Don Pedro (1350 – 1369), an eccentric ruler of Castile and Leon known for his cruelty and also known for his open-mindedness toward different cultures. Christian, Jewish, and Islamic cultures flourished, and a harmonious relationship existed between these cultures during his reign.
King Don Pedro was a great admirer of Moorish culture and architecture. He built this magnificent palace using Mudéjar artisans from Seville, Toledo, and the Moorish kingdom of Granada. Mudéjar art and architecture, which emerged in Andalusia, Spain, in the 12th century, is a fusion of Islamic and Christian styles, best characterized by horseshoe arches, afarje ceilings decorated with interlaced star-like polygons, decorative motifs on plaster with linear and curvilinear patterns, glazed ceramic tiles with geometrical patterns, beehive ceilings, and stalactites.
The Pedro I Palace is part of Real Alcázar of Seville, a large complex consisting of palaces, administrative buildings, and gardens built/rebuilt by different cultures from the middle ages to the modern era. A part of this palace is still being used as the royal residence. Designated in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site – along with the Seville Cathedral and the General Archive of the Indies – the Real Alcázar is one of the most visited attractions in the world.
The main entrance to the Real Alcázar is the Puerta del León, a gate built during the Almohad times, located on the Plaza del Triunfo and is close to the eastern end of the Seville Cathedral.
The image below shows the front facade of Puerta del León. Embedded into its wall above the door is a beautiful emblem of a lion carrying the cross, which is responsible for the name Puerta del León, which means Lion’s Gate in Spanish. Although the wall of this gate is from Almohad times, the emblem is recent, made in 1892 of Triana Ceramic tiles in a local factory named Mensaque.
The Puerta del León is not the only entrance to the Real Alcázar; There is another located at the intersection of Calle Menendez Pelayo and Calle San Fernando, used mostly for special occasions.
Puerta del León – Main entrance to the Real Alcázar Patio del León (Courtyard of the Lion)
The Peurta del León opens into the Patio del León, a small courtyard with a path in the middle flanked by several rectangle-shaped hedges of neatly-trimmed myrtle bushes, which enclose tall trees, including cypress, and a variety of plants. The other end of the patio is the ancient Moorish wall. See the image below.
The view of the Patio del León shown in the image is from the Moorish wall. At the far end is the rear side of the Peurta del León.
Ancient Moorish wall
Visitors walk through ancient Moorish wall before entering into the Real Alcázar complex. The three arched doors were carved out of the defensive fortification to allow entry to the newly built Pedro I Palace. As you can see, there is a difference in construction methods. The brick-based archways were from the King Pedro era, whereas the stone-based rest of the wall was from the Almohad era.
Ancient Moorish wall
Majestic exterior
Pedro I Palace and Patio de la Montería (Courtyard of Hunting)
The building at the far end of the image is King Pedro I Palace, and the courtyard in front of it is known as Patio de la Montería (Courtyard of Hunting), i.e., the courtyard with the white crisscrossed lines. To the right of King Pedro I Palace is Casa de Contratación (House of Trade). This view is captured from the middle arched door of the ancient Moorish wall, which separates the Patio de la Montería and Patio del León (Courtyard of the Lion).
Entrance to the Pedro I Palace
The Pedro I Palace has a beautifully-designed Mudéjar-style facade and entrance. Mathematics played a vital role in creating beautiful art in the decoration of the facade. As you can see, the design is symmetrical about the vertical axis. The beam above the door has several voussoirs (wedge-shaped blocks) that are placed at regular intervals and slanted outwards. Flanking the door are the blind stilted arches with the space above them decorated with beautiful sebka decorative motifs.
This view was captured from the Patio de la Montería. You can see visitors entering into a narrow hall known as the vestibule, which has passageways at the ends leading to the other rooms.
Glamorous interior
Decorated by the Mudéjar artisans from Seville, Toledo and Granada, the interior is filled stunningly beautiful artwork containing mesmerizing geometrical patterns on the walls, ceilings and arches.
Layout of the Palace
Layout of the Pedro I Palace
The diagram shows the ground plan of the Pedro I Palace Note: This diagram is neither accurate nor drawn to scale. The purpose of this diagram is to show different halls and rooms and their locations within the palace.
Here is the list of the halls and rooms:
1. Vestibulo (Vestibule) 2. Alcoba Real (Royal Bedroom) 3. Patio de las Doncellas (Courtyard of the Maidens) – Corridor 4. Patio de las Doncellas – Sunken Garden 5. Salón de Embajadores (Ambassadors’ Room) 6. Salón de los Sevillanos (Hall of the Sevillians) 7. Salón de los Toledanos (Hall of the Toledans) 8. Patio de las Muñecas (Patio of the Dolls) 9. Sala de los Infantes (Infants Room) 10. Sala de los Pasos Perdidos – Hall of the Lost Steps 11. Salón de los Reyes Católicos (Hall of the Catholic Monarchs) 12. Cuarto del Príncipe (Prince’s Room) 13. Salón del Techo de Felipe II (Philip II Ceiling Room) 14. Salón del Techo de Carlos V (Charles V Ceiling Room)
King Don Pedro lived in this palace and conducted his official here. As the name suggests, his bedroom is Alcoba Real (2). The halls he used for the official business are centered around Patio de las Doncellas (4). The queen and children used Patio de las Muñecas (8). The Salón de Embajadores (5) was the throne room, and this was where King Don Pedro received emissaries and prominent people of his time.
Vestibulo (Vestibule)
The Vestibule (Section 1 in the layout) is the hall where visitors enter the Pedro I Palace. It is a narrow hall with passageways at the ends leading to the other rooms. The left passageway leads to the Patio de las Doncellas, which is the official section of the palace. The right passageway leads to the Patio de las Muñecas, which is the private section of the palace.
Mudéjar art on the ceiling of the entrance hall
The beautiful piece of work in wood shown in the image is on the ceiling of the vestibule. It is classic Mudéjar art. As you can see, enclosed within the central rectangle of the wooden panel is exquisitely decorated artwork containing gold inlaid shapes (medallions and polygons), with beautiful geometrical patterns interlaced around them.
Alcoba Real (Royal Bedroom)
Situated next to the vestibule, the Alcoba Real was King Pedro’s bedroom, which has two rooms, outer and inner. Check section 2 in the layout. As you can see, the inner room has only one door, which opens into the outer room.
All the three images shown above portray the beauty of Mudéjar art. The floor and lower part of walls is ornate with tile work covered with eye-catching geometrical patterns. It appears as though these patterns follow some mathematical equations. The arched door of the outer room opens into Patio de las Doncellas, and the wall surrounding it is embellished with arabesques and Islamic calligraphy. Covering the ceiling is a beautiful piece of artwork in wood. As you can see, this exquisitely decorated artwork contains gold inlaid shapes (medallions and polygons), with beautiful geometrical patterns interlaced around them.
Patio de las Doncellas (Courtyard of the Maidens)
The Patio de las Doncellas (Courtyard of the Maidens) is a rectangular courtyard with ornate corridors on all four sides. In the middle of the courtyard is a pool flanked by sunken garden with trees that include the famous orange trees of Seville.
Legend has it that the sultan of Cordoba demanded 100 virgins every year as a tribute from the Christian kings of the Iberian Peninsula. This courtyard owns its name to the maidens in the legend.
Patio de las Doncellas – Corridor
The courtyard was built by King Don Pedro and the upper gallery was a later addition built by Charles V.
This courtyard resembles many open courtyards in the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada. For example, Court of the Myrtles in the Nasrid Palaces, Patio de la Acequia (Court of the Irrigation Canal) in the Generalife. This is because King Pedro I loved Moorish architecture and decoration and had a cordial relationship with the Nasrids of Granada, who sent master craftsmen to help build and decorate the palace.
As you can see, the alfarje ( i.e., wooden panel on the ceiling) is exquisitely decorated with artwork containing gold inlaid shapes (medallions and polygons), with beautiful geometrical patterns interlaced around them. This beautiful piece of work is another excellent example of Mudéjar art. Check the Mudéjar art on the ceiling of the entrance hall.
Salón de Embajadores (Ambassadors’ Hall)
The Salón de Embajadores (Room 5 in the layout) was King Don Pedro’s throne room, and this was where he received emissaries and prominent people of his time. It is the most elaborately decorated room in the Pedro I Palace. Adding to its beauty is the perfect symmetry with which it was built and decorated. The square-shaped room is symmetrical about both the principal axis.
The exquisitely decorated ceiling is an excellent example of geometrical artwork using Mudéjar-style design. As you can see from the image, the view is dazzling and delightful to watch. Enclosing the perfectly circular shape is an octagram, a star-shaped polygon with eight angles, also a hexadecagon (a polygon with 16 sides).
The recessed circular panel is filled with small colorful polygons arranged in a geometrical pattern that radiates outwards from the star-like shape in the center. It gives an impression of the sky with a multitude of twinkling stars. The designers intended to make the people experience cosmic space in this room. It is believed that the artwork on the ceiling represents the cosmos, and the square room below represents the earth.
Each side of the square room looks similar, with a balcony made of wrought iron projecting out just below the ceiling. Below each balcony is a richly decorated arched door opening into another room. These balconies were added later, sometime in the 19th century.
Richly decorated rooms dedicated to the artisans
The Salón de Embajadores opens into Salón de los Sevillanos (Hall of the Sevillians) and Salón de los Toledanos (Hall of the Toledans) on two of its sides. See the sections 6 and 7 of the layout. The Salón de los Sevillanos is dedicated the artisans from Seville who decorated this hall. Likewise, Salón de los Toledanos owes its name to the artisans from Toledo.
As you can see from the images, the triple horse shoe arches supported by marble pillars separate the adjacent halls from the Salón de Embajadores.
Patio de las Muñecas (Patio of the Dolls)
Patio de las Muñecas (Room 8 in the layout) got its name because of the dolls carved into the arches. The image on the left has dolls carved into the arch near its bottom. It is believed that there are nine dolls carved into arches of the Patio de las Muñecas.
During Don Pedro’s time, the queen and the children used this room. The space above the arch is ornate with beautiful sebka decorative motifs. The upper two floors are the newer and built in the nineteenth century.
Notes
Note 1: Mudéjars were highly skilled craftsmen of Moorish origin who remained in the Christian areas and worked as masons, carpenters, potters, glass-makers, etc. Their skills were highly sought after to build palaces and luxury homes for the nobility in the Christian and Islamic areas.
Note 2: Arabesque is a repetitive pattern of foliage or geometrical designs found in decorations of Islamic architecture.
Note 3: Alfarje is a wooden painted ceiling decorated with decoration based interlacing star-shaped polygons.
Whether you love it or hate it, this unique and futuristic-looking structure, popularly known as Las Setas of Seville, stands in stark contrast to the rest of Seville that prides itself on world-famous historical monuments. Because it resembles mushrooms, it got its name Las Setas, which means ‘The Mushrooms’ in Spanish. However, it is officially known as Metropol Parasol because of its six umbrella-like structures, known as parasols.
The six parasols of Las Setas are connected and arranged into four levels. The underground level (Level 0) houses a museum known as Antiquarium. Designed by Felipe Palomino González – a renowned Sevillian architect who also participated in the Las Setas design – the Antiquarium is home to archaeological artifacts found in this area. The street-level (Level 1) houses a supermarket, Mercado de la Encarnación. The upper levels (Levels 2 and 3) have walkways and miradors (viewing points) for visitors to experience the 360-view of the city. There is a tapas restaurant in the central parasol.The area below the parasols is spacious and used for holding events
Designed by the German architect Jürgen Mayer and completed in April 2011, Las Setas is the largest wooden structure in the world built by employing 3,500 pieces of Finnish pine (Kerto) joined by 3000 knots using 16 million screws and nails. This 26 meters high structure covers 3500 (150 x 70) cubic meters and weighs 1,300,000 kgs.
Although the Las Setas looks like an unconventional structure, the inspiration for Jürgen Mayer’s design came from a conventional source, i.e., Seville Cathedral. Beautifully designed vaulted ceilings connecting its towering columns seem to have influenced his design.
A bit of history
The site occupied by Las Setas is known as the Plaza de La Encarnación, which used to be the city center of old Seville, with a long history dating back to Roman times. It is apparent from the archeological artifacts found in this area that the Romans built their houses and industries in this area. The Almohads, a Moorish dynasty from North Africa who took over the city in 1248, also built houses that were part of their palaces.
The Plaza de La Encarnación got its name from the convent of the Incarnation of the Augustinian Religions that existed in this site for more than 200 years. It was built in 1591 and destroyed in 1810 by Napoleon’s army.
The ancient history of the Plaza de La Encarnación lay hidden for a long time until 2003 when the city council of Seville decided to build a plaza with an underground parking garage. The excavation for this garage led to the discovery of ancient ruins, which resulted in the city council abandoning the plan to construct the plaza.
Soon after, the city council announced an international competition to redesign the Plaza de La Encarnación in such as way that the ruins underneath are preserved. The German architect Jürgen Mayer won the competition, and the rest is history. The construction based on his design began in 2005, and as mentioned before, ended in April 2011.
Stunning views at the street level
Las Setas is an imposing structure and awesome sight to watch. At night, it is lit by colorful lights that make it appear like an alien ship. The street level (Level 1) houses a supermarket, Mercado de la Encarnación. There is a tapas restaurant in the central parasol. The area below the parasols is spacious and used for holding events.
A street level view at day timeSpace under the parasolsA street level view at night A street level view at night
Experience the 360-degree view of Seville at the upper levels
Curved walkways on the upper level terraceUpper level with La Giralda at the far end
The upper levels (Levels 2 and 3) have walkways and miradors (viewing points) for visitors to experience the 360-view of the city. Visitors can climb and walk the paths on the upper levels and get a 360-degree view of Seville. Many prominent landmarks of Seville, including La Giralda, Seville Cathedral, Plaza de Espana, are visible from different vantage points. There are curved walkways that enable visitors to move from the elevator exit (21 meters) to the highest viewing point (28.5 meters).
Panoramic Views
The top left image shows the Iglesia de la Anunciación (Church of the Annunciation) at the near end. This church is on Calle Laraña, located next to the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Seville.
The tall building on the top right image is the Seville Tower, an office building with 40 floors that includes a shopping complex and a five star hotel. Designed by the Argentine architect César Pelli – who also designed many world’s tallest skyscrapers, including Petronas Tower in Kuala Lumpur – this elliptical-shaped building is the tallest in Andalusia.
The two towers on the left side of the bottom left image belong to the Plaza de España, a grand semi-circular building with a canal in front. Built at the two ends of this building are the two imposing towers that are seen in this image. The yellowish structure near the center of the image is the Iglesia de Santa Cruz, a Catholic church located on Mateos Gago Street in Barrio Santa Cruz. Built in the 18th century, the Iglesia de Santa Cruz is the headquarters of the Brotherhood of Santa Cruz.
The tower you see in the bottom right image is an iconic landmark of Seville, La Giralda, the bell fry of the Seville Cathedral, which is behind La Giralda.
Iglesia de la AnunciacionSeville TowerPlaza de España and Iglesia de Santa Cruz Seville Cathedral and La Giralda
Undoubtedly, the Durga Temple at Aihole is an architectural masterpiece and a testament to the ingenuity and engineering skills of the Badami Chalukyas. With its unusual shape and structure, it stands out from the rest of the temples in this area. It could even be mistaken for a Greek or Roman monument because of its curved shape and massive columns that have beautifully-carved corbels at their capitals. It is generally believed that the inspiration for the architecture of the Parliament House in New Delhi came from this temple.
Although it is called Durga Temple, Goddess Durga is not its principal deity. It got its name for an unusual reason. In Kannada, durga means fort. Because the Durga Temple used to be part of a fort complex, people started calling it a temple at the durga, and the name eventually stuck.
Located in Aihole, about 22 miles from Badami and 6 miles from Pattadakal, the Durga Temple was built by the Badami Chalukyas sometime in the 7th or 8th century, although some experts dispute the dating. It is contemporaneous with the rock-cut caves of Badami, and they have a lot in common, especially the carvings. This page describes some of the similarities.
Harmonious blend of architecture styles
Rear view of the Durga Temple
Although architecturally classified as the Gajaprastha style – a subclass under the Dravida style – it is a fusion of many architectural styles, including the northern nagara and southern mantapa. In Kannada, Gajaprastha refers to the back-side of an elephant. The round rear-side of this temple does indeed resemble that. If a temple is curved at the back, then its architecture style is identified as Gajaprastha. However, such temples are rare in Southern India.
As you can see from the image, above the garbhagriha is the shikhara (a.k.a. vimana), a tower-like structure that appears to be of northern nagara-style design. Notice the round ridged object fallen on the ground next to the temple. Known as amalaka, it used to be part of the shikhara placed just below the kalasa (pinnacle).
East side view and entrance to the Durga Temple
Just like the majority of Hindu temples, this temple faces east, but with an unusual entrance. Instead of a single flight of steps facing front, it has two staircases facing sideways (one facing south and the other north) that join at the top. Check the mukhamantapa image.
As you can see from the image, the temple is on an elevated platform with massive stone columns built at the periphery to support the roof.
Mukhamantapa
South side view of the Durga Temple
The two side-staircases join at the center and lead to the mukhamantapa (porch), which is a pillared hall with four pillars inside and several pillars at the periphery. The mukhamantapa design conforms to the Dravida-style architecture.
Richly decorated internal pillars are carved with exquisite stone artwork and sculptural reliefs on all four sides. All the pillars have finely-carved sculptures depicting mostly romantic couples, some of which can be described as mildly erotic, and are known as the mithuna shilpa.
The floor space covered by the four internal pillars is elevated and is accessed through a flight of steps on the east end. Check the front view of the temple. The area covered by the internal pillars forms a small mantapa (hall) within the mukhamantapa. At the other end of this internal mantapa is the Dvārabandha, i.e., the entrance to the sabhamantapa and garbhagriha.
As you can see from the image, massive stone beams connect the internal pillars resulting in two deeply recessed square-shaped blocks on the ceiling. Carved into these blocks are the two beautiful bas-reliefs, Matsya Chakra and Coiled Nagaraja. Attached to the beam separating these blocks are the slightly-curved buttresses. The bottom part of these buttresses are the faces of Makara, a dragon-like mythical creature, projecting out of the capitals of the pillars. The roof above the recessed blocks is at a higher level than the rest of the mukhamantapa.
Matsya Chakra – A beautiful relief representing a cosmic pond
Matsya Chakra (Fish Wheel)
Known as the Matsya Chakra (Fish Wheel), this intricately-carved relief covers a recessed block of the ceiling near the dvārabandha. As you can see, it is a wheel consisting of a hub at the center and 16 spokes of fish enclosed by a rim carved with beautiful patterns of flowers and leaves. The hub of the wheel is a medallion with a lotus flower pattern. The Matsya Chakra relief likely represents the cosmic pond.
This relief was likely inspired by the Matsya Chakra relief found on the mukhamantapa ceiling of Cave -3, the third of the four rock-cut caves of Badami.
Coiled Nagaraja – An exquisitely-carved relief depicting king of serpents.
Coiled Nagaraja
Carved into the other recessed block on the ceiling is another beautiful relief that depicts Nagaraja, the mythical king of serpents. As you can see, Nagaraja has multiple serpent heads, and at the center, there is a human head with the torso that extends into a spiraling serpent body forming a coil.
In this highly-detailed relief, Nagaraja is wearing a beautiful mukuta (headgear) and a variety of jewelry, including earrings, necklaces, bangles, and armbands. He is also wearing the yajnopavita, a looped thread sacred to Hindus worn across the chest from the left shoulder to the waist. He is holding a garland with his right hand and a bowl with his left hand.
This relief was likely inspired by the Coiled Nagaraja carving found on the ceiling of Cave -1, the first of the four rock-cut caves of Badami.
Pillars embellished with erotic art
As you can see, the pillar shown in the left image is ornate with a variety of bas-reliefs. The topmost carving is a mithuna shilpa, i.e., an erotic art form depicting a romantic couple. Below that is a carving depicting a series of male musicians playing different instruments. The frieze below that contains Kirthimuka, a decoration commonly seen in Indian and Southeast Asian temples.
Just above the bottom-most frieze is a Vidyadhara couple carved inside a circular frame. The bottom-most frieze contains a series of male figures, likely wrestlers.
Dvārabandha – An elaborate entrance to the sabhamantapa
Entrance to the sabhamantapa
The facade of the entrance to the sabhamantapa (congregation hall) is ornate with an ensemble of decorations. At the center is the door that opens int to the main hall and leads to the garbhagriha (inner sanctum). Carved into the lintel is a beautiful relief depicting an imposing figure of Garuda, an eagle-like bird used by Vishnu as his vehicle, clasping nāgas (serpents) who have human heads. Surrounding the door frame are the finely-carved pilasters and vertical stone beams. Carved into the beams on the outer edge is a series of beautiful female figures, likely representing apsaras.
The stone pediment above the lintel consists of gods and demigods in the niches separated by geometrical patterns.
Garuda subduing the nagas
Garuda with nagas
This intricately carved relief is on the lintel of the dvārabandha depicts Vishnu’s vehicle Garuda, a mythical eagle-like bird with a human-like body with wings, holding nāgas, who have human heads and serpent bodies. As you can see, there are three nāgas on each side with their tails tightly held by Garuda’s hands. Notice the middle nāga on the left. He has seven serpent heads, indicating that he is the Nagaraja, the king of serpents.
Sabhamantapa and Garbhagriha
The door at the far end of the left image opens into the garbhagriha (inner sanctum) of the Durga Temple. The right image shows the interior of the garbhagriha. As you can see from this image, there is just a pedestal on which the principal idol of the temple once stood. Because this idol is missing, nobody is sure to whom this temple was dedicated. Historians believe that it was likely a Surya or Vishnu temple.
There are eight pillars, four on each side, in the main hall that is in front of the garbhagriha, virtually dividing the hall into a grid of three longitudinal aisles and five transverse sections.
In a typical Dravida-style architecture, the mantapa in front of the garbhagriha has two halls: antarala (ante-chamber) and sabhamantapa (congregation hall). In this temple, the first transverse section in front of the garbhagriha is narrower than the other four. So, it can be considered as the antarala. The rest of the main hall is the sabhamantapa.
An oblong-shaped wall, one side of which is semi-circular, surrounds the garbhagriha and the main hall. The semi-circular part appears like an apsidal structure, and this design resembles a Christian Church (sans transepts). Experts believe that it was influenced by the architecture of Buddhist Chaitra halls.
The surrounding wall was built with large perfectly-fitting stones, some of which were cut with precise curvature. It is amazing how the builders achieved this high level of precision without the aid of sophisticated machinery.
Corridor used as the Pradakshina Patha
The Durga Temple has a covered Pradakshina Patha (clockwise circumambulation path). As you can see from the images, the corridor used for performing the circumambulation has a slightly slanted roof supported by the stone pillars at the periphery. The other side of this corridor is a wall that surrounds the garbhagriha and the mantapa (covered hall) in front of it. The upper half of this wall alternate between dēvakōshtas (niches) and jālandharas (perforated windows). Occupying the dēvakōshtas are beautifully carved sculptures, each depicting a god or goddess. The jālandharas provide light and ventilation into the interior.
Because the Durga Temple is apsidal, the corridor is bent at the far end, which in other words means its rear side covering the garbhagriha is round.
Dēvakōshtas – Niches with finely-carved sculptures
There are six dēvakōshtas built into the inner wall of the corridor. The jālandharas occupy the space between the dēvakōshtas.
As you can see, each sculpture is installed between kudyastambhas (pilasters).
Jālandharas – Beautifully designed perforated windows
The purpose of the jālandharas is to provide ventilation and light into the interior. They also improve the aesthetics when the perforations are cut into the stone to create beautiful patterns.
In the Durga Temple, they are carved with perforations forming a variety of patterns, some of which depict sacred religious symbols and the others aesthetically pleasing patterns. Here is a list of the jālandharas installed in the clock-wise direction:
Jālandhara carved with the swastika and lotus flower patternsJālandhara with rhombus patternsDharmachakra carved in a jālandharaJālandharas in the south side
The jālandhara is a unique element of the Dravida-style architecture and is a common feature in many Chalukya and Hoysala temples.
Prambanan is a massive Hindu temple complex (also known as Rara Jonggrang complex) located 11 miles northeast of Yogyakarta in Indonesia. Built around 900 CE, this complex contains multiple temples dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses. Carved into the walls of these temples are the beautiful bas-reliefs that depict scenes narrated in the Indian epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the Puranas. Most of the bas-reliefs are very detailed, and because of that, the stories they represent are easily identifiable.
Ramayana bas-reliefs
The bas-reliefs depicting stories from Ramayana are carved into the inner walls of the balustrade of the corridor surrounding the inner sanctum of the Shiva and Brahma Temples. Not all bas-reliefs are in the right order, and in some cases, wrong bas-reliefs are in place, a result of improper restoration. Here are some of them that are easily identifiable.
Rama’s exile
Rama, Sita and Lakshmana leaving Ayodhya for exile
Rama was one of the four sons of Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya. Being the eldest son, Rama was the legitimate heir to the throne of Ayodhya. Kaikeye, one of his three wives, wanted her son Bharata to be the future king of Ayodhya.
When Dasharatha became ready to hand-over his reign to Rama, Kaikeye invokes two varas (boons) that Dasharatha had given to her when she saved his life during a battle. She asks Dasharatha to make Bharata the crown prince and banish Rama to the forest for 14 years. King Dasharatha reluctantly agrees because he could not go back on his promises. Rama respects his father’s wishes and leaves Ayodhya for the forest along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana.
The bas-relief shown in the image is a narrative depiction of Rama, his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana leaving Ayodhya for the exile in the forest. Seated in front of the chariot are Rama and his wife Sita, and in the back is his brother Lakshmana. The people in the back chariot are the courtiers from King Dasharatha’s court bidding farewell to their popular princes.
King Dasharatha’s funeral
Rama’s father King Dasaratha’s funeral
Once Rama, Sita and Lakshmana left for exile, King Dasharatha became grief-stricken and died soon after. The bas-relief depicts the funeral ceremony of Dasharatha.
Bharata’s inauguration as the King of Ayodhya
Dancing at the inauguration of Bharata
Bharata is a half-brother of Rama, the eldest son of Dasharatha and the legal heir to the throne. As mentioned earlier, Bharata’s mother Kaikeyi convinces Dasharatha to make Bharatha the king of Ayodhya and banish Rama to the forest for fourteen years.
The image depicts dancing at the inauguration of Bharata as the king of Ayodhya.
Rama’s time in exile
As mentioned earlier, Rama along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana went into exile in the forest for fourteen years. Some of the bas-reliefs depict events that happened during his exile.
Killing Viradha
Rama killing Viradha, a rakshasa in Dandakaranya
Rama spent 13 of the 14 years of exile in Dandakaranya, a forest that was home to many noble rishis (sages) as well as evil rakshasas (demons). Viradha was one of the rakshasas attacking the rishis and animals and destroying vegetation in Dandakaranya. No weapons could kill Viradha as he possessed a supernatural power from a vara (boon) he received from Brahma. Because of this vara, he was fearless. As Rama was wandering in Dandakaranya with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, Viradha arrogantly confronts Rama and tries to snatch Sita. Enraged by this act, Rama kills Viradha by burying him since weapons could not kill him. As he lay dying, he morphs into a gandharva, which was his original form, and thanks Rama for releasing him from the curse that made him a rakshasa. Note: Gandarvas are a type of demigods who are celestial musicians.
Kidnapping of Rama’s wife Sita
This famous episode in Ramayana happens in the 13th year of Rama’s exile. In this episode, Mareecha, a rakshasa (demon) and maternal uncle of Ravana, assumes the form of a golden deer to distract Rama in order to enable Ravana to kidnap Rama’s wife Sita (Shinta in Java).
Rama slaying Mareecha who assumed the form of a golden deer
The image shows Rama killing the golden deer with his arrow and the body of Mareecha springing out of the golden deer as it starts dying.
According to the story, before Mareecha dies, he imitates Rama’s voice and screams “Oh! Sita, Oh! Lakshmana.” Troubled by this voice, Sita pleads with Rama’s brother Laksmana to help Rama. Lakshmana reluctantly agrees, but before he leaves, he draws a line, famously known as the Lakshmana Rekha, around the hermitage and asks Sita not to cross it under any circumstances.
Ravana kidnapping Sita
Once Lakshmana leaves the hermitage, Ravana disguised as a sadhu (ascetic) comes there and chants “Bhavati Biksham Dehi” (Oh! mother, give me some alms). Seeing the sadhu, Sita goes inside to fetch alms. Ravana tries to follow her into the hermitage but was unable to cross the Lakshmana Rekha. Once Sita returns, he convinces Sita to come out of it to give Ravana the alms. As soon as she crosses the Lakshmana Rekha, Ravana kidnaps her.
Rama killing Kabandha
Kabandha is another rakshasa, Rama and Lakshmana killed during their exile. With the eyes and mouth in his belly, he is a rakshasa with an enormous appetite. The image below shows the bas-relief depicting Rama killing Kabandha.
Rama killing Kabandha
This episode happens after Ravan abducts Sita. According to the story, Kabandha finds Rama and Lakshmana wandering in the forest looking for Sita. He tries to catch them with the intention of eating them, but Rama and Lakshmana fight him off and were about to kill him by severing his hands. Realizing that they are not ordinary human beings, he asks for their identity. When he comes to know who they are, he pleads with them to release him from his curse by killing him.
Just like Viradha, Kabandha too was born a gandharva but cursed by Indra to become a carnivorous rakshasa. Once Rama and Lakshmana kill him, he regains his original gandharva body and advises Rama how to find Sita. He suggests Rama befriend Sugriva, a vanara (monkey) who is in power struggle with his brother Vali, and help him to become the King of Kishkindha.
Building Rama Setu (Bridge to Lanka)
Vanara Sene Building Rama Setu
After killing Kabandha, Rama continues his journey in search of Sita. As per Kadambha’s advice, he goes southwards to the Rishyamuka Mountain to meet Sugriva, who agrees to help him, provided Rama help him topple his elder brother Vali, the King of Kishkindha.
Rama and Sugriva devise a plan to defeat Vali. As per this plan, Sugriva invites Vali for a duel, and during the fight, Rama waiting on the sidelines kills Vali with an arrow. See the beautifully carved Vali-Sugriva Fight bas-relief on the Banteay Srei Temple that illustrates this fight.
After the death of Vali, Sugriva becomes the King of Kishkindha. Sugriva’s friend Hanuman goes to Lanka and finds the exact location of Sita.
Eventually, Sugriva builds a vanara sene (army of monkeys) to invade Lanka to get back Sita. Because Lanka is an island, Sugriva builds a bridge to Lanka to ferry the monkey troops. The image below shows the bas-relief depicting the vanara sene led by Sugriva building the bridge to Lanka (Rama Setu).
Other Ramayana bas-reliefs
The bas-reliefs shown in the images below are not easily identifiable.
Ramayana story bas-reliefBas-relief depicting a story from Ramayana
Bas-reliefs of Ramayana tales
Krishnayana bas-reliefs
Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, is the principal character in the Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana, and Bhagavata Githa. The Krishnayana reliefs depict stories of Krishna’s childhood and youth, mainly taken from the Bhagavata Purana and are carved in the Vishnu Temple.
Krishna and his stepbrother Balarama lived with his foster parents which is because Krishna’s parents, Vasudeva and Devaki, were jailed by Kamsa, his maternal uncle and the King of Mathura. Having killed Krishna’s six elder siblings, Kamsa was intent on killing Krishna because of a prophecy that foretold the death of Kamsa at the hands of Devaki’s eighth child, Kamsa feared Krishna would kill him.
Krishnayana story
Krishna’s foster parents, Nanda and Yashoda, lived a simple life in a place named Gokula. Nanda was the head of cowherds, so both Krishna and Balarama spent their childhood herding cows.
The image shows the bas-relief depicting the life of Krishna during his childhood.
Krishna and Balarama played together and often go to a wooded place named Vrindavana to play with their friends.
Krishna and Balarama killing demons
The image below shows a section of the Krishnayana bas-reliefs with two different stories.
Exploits of Krishna and Balarama
The left section depicts Krishna taming Kaliya, a vicious serpent who lived in the Yamuna River and roamed on its banks. According to the legend, Kaliya was poisoning the Yamuna River and creating havoc among the people living in Vrindavana. One day, when Krishna was playing in Vrindavana, the ball falls into Yamuna River. As Krishna dives into the river to retrieve a ball, Kaliya swoops on Krishna and tries to bite him. Krishna overpowers Kaliya and is about to tear apart his jaws to kill him, Kaliya’s wives come begging to Krishna to spare his life. Krishna listens to their pleas and forgives Kaliya, but banishes him and his family to Ramanaka Dweepa, an island far away from Vrindavana.
The story in the right section is about Balarama killing Dhenukasura, an asura (demon) who assumed the form of a donkey. When Dhenukasura attacks Krishna and Balarama for eating fruits in the Talavana Forest, Balarama wheels Dhenukasura’s body around by holding his hind legs and then swings it on the top of trees to kill him.
Krishna killing Vyomasura
Krishna and Balarama killing demons
The bas-relief depicts Krishna killing Vyomasura, a demon who could fly like a bat. According to a legend, Vyomasura disguises as a cowherd with an intention to kidnap Krishna’s cowherd friends. When Krishna notices an unusual face among his friends, he confronts Vyomasura, who then shows his true self. As can be seen from the image, Krishna lifts Vyomasura up by grabbing his legs, smashes him to the ground and kills him.
Krishnayana Story
.As you can see from the image, there are two story panels (likely restored incorrectly because there is no continued carving between the two). The left panel depicts Balarama, Krishna’s stepbrother, carrying his signature weapon, a plow, and the right panel Krishna killing an unidentified rakshasa.
Other bas-reliefs
The Prambanan temples have other bas-reliefs that are not directly related to either Ramayana or Krishnayana. Some of them depict devatas and apsaras. There are also reliefs of Lokapala, which could be Indra or the likeness of King Lokapala.
Lokapala
Lokapala in Sanskrit literally means guardian of the world. Loka means world and pala means guardian. In Hinduism, there is also a notion of guardian of a cardinal direction. A Lokapala may also be the guardian of a direction.
The Shiva Temple has numerous bas-relief frames with Lokapala sculptures. The other temples also have similar bas-reliefs but not as beautiful and expressive.
The Lokapala statues are in the sitting position but with different hand gestures (i.e., mudras) and facial expressions representing moods. The thrones on which Lokapala sits are similar.
The Lokapala statues have similar types of jewelry carved almost in the same position on the body. These include the necklace, thread around the belly, and thread on the left shoulder going over the navel (similar to the yajnopavita, a sacred thread worn by Hindus). Some experts believe that the Lokapala statues portray King Balitung Maha Sambu himself.
Lokapala reliefs in the Shiva Temple
The images below show the Lokapala statues placed in different directions.
LokapalaLokapala with the Vara Mudra hand gestureKubera holding a pomegranate with his right handBas-relief of Lokapala with the Bhumisparsha Mudra (Hand Gesture) in the Shiva TempleBas relief of meditating Lokapala
Lokapala reliefs in the Vishnu Temple
The images below show Lokapala flanked by the apsaras.
Devata flanked by ApsarasBalarama
Rishis (Sages)
Saptarishis carved in the Shiva Temple
The bas-relief depicting different rishis are carved on the outer walls of the temples. The sculptural relief shown below is carved on three frames in the Shiva Temple depicts the seven great sages of ancient India known as saptarishis. Here are the names of these rishis from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: 1. Vishwamitra 2. Vasistha 3. Jamadagni 4. Kashyapa 5. Atri 6. Bharadwaja. 7. Gautama Maharishi. The other Puranic texts have a different set of names.
Astronomically, saptarishis represent seven stars of the constellation of Ursa Major, commonly known as the Big Dipper. The legend of seven great sages exists in many ancient cultures, including the Greek, Chinese, and Egyptian cultures.
The sage at the center is most-likely Vishwamitra. As you can see from the image, Vishwamitra and some of the sage are holding japamalas with their right hands. A trishula (trident) is behind Vishwamitra with a kamandala (water jug) hung on its prong. It appears they are engaged in a debate.
Here are the reliefs of the other rishis:
A Rishi (Sage) with the Vitāraka Mudra GestureA rishi flanked by apsaras
Lion flanked by Kinnaras
Lion flanked by Kinnaras
Most visitors to Prambanan notice the beautiful and a detailed carving as shown in the image. There are similar carvings on the outer walls of many temples.
At the center of this carving is the statue of a lion in the niche, and on either side of the lion is a kinnara couple (male and female) standing under the Kalpavriksha (a.k.a Kalphataru), the divine tree that fulfills wishes. Kinnara female is known as kinnaree. The significance and meaning of this unusual but beautiful and detailed carving are not well understood.
Kinnara
In Southeast Asian Hindu mythology, a kinnara is half-human and half-bird, whereas, in Indian Hindu mythology, a kinnara is a half-human and half-horse. Kinnaras are celestial musicians and live as a couple.
According to Mahabharata, a kinnara couple is a husband and wife forever, and their love is everlasting. No third person or creature can ever share their love. Because of this reason, they can never become parents, therefore, cannot have offspring.
Kalpavriksha
According to Hindu mythology, Kalpavrisksha is a divine tree that fulfills the desires of people. It is a by-product of the Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk). See the Samudra Manthana bas-relief in the Angkor Wat Temple. Indra, who was in the middle of the Samudra Manthana, took this tree and planted in his garden.
Other lion carvings
In some of the lion carvings, the kinnaras are replaced by animals such as rabbits. See the images below.
Lion flanked by animals under KalpavrikshaLion flanked by animals under Kalpavriksha
