Ta Prohm is one of the most visited temple complexes in Siem Reap, Cambodia. The temple complex is intermingled with tall trees, some of which have grown on top of structures with their roots flowing down to the ground, which makes a fascinating view.
The Ta Prohm archaeological site was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992.ย The Archaeological Society of India (ASI) has been collaborating with the Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap (APSARA) of Cambodia to conserve and restore the site.ย The image below shows the layout of the site.
The layout of the Ta Prohm temple complex
History
According to the inscription found inside the temple, King Jayavarman VII, who was a follower of Mahayana Buddhism, built Ta Prohm as a Buddhist monument in 1186 CE and dedicated it to his mother. It is believed that she is buried inside the temple complex.ย Ta Prohm also has two smaller temples inside the complex dedicated to his brother and guru (teacher).
Ta Prohm, which means Ancestor Brahma, was originally named Raja Vihara, which in Sanskrit literally means king’s rest house. But the term vihara was generally used in Buddhist texts to indicate a monastery. Therefore, Ta Prohm must have been a Buddhist monastery.
Layout
The layout and architecture of Ta Prohm are more like Banteay Srei than Angkor Wat. It is not a temple mountain like Angkor Wat, but rather like Banteay Srei having temple structures within the concentric enclosures.
Like most of the Hindu and Buddhist temples, Ta Prohm faces east. It has five concentric enclosures of rectangular shape with a wall surrounding each, but most of the walls have collapsed.
Temple Complex
The image shows the causeway and the entrance to the third innermost enclosure from the west side.
An entrance to the third enclosure of the Ta Prohm temple complex from the west side
Ta Prohm has many temple structures with tall trees grown on top of them. The roots of the trees flow down to the ground covering parts of the structure. These scenes have fascinated people all over the world and tourists flock to see these fascinating structures that coexist with the jungle.
A Ta Prohm Temple structure with a tree grown on top
A tree on top of a temple structure at the Ta Prohm Temple complex
Ta Prohm temple structures with trees growing on top
Bayon is a mysterious Buddhist temple constructed at the exact center of Angkor Thom. Whereas Angkor Wat gives an impression of a grandeur edifice with harmonious design and open spaces, Bayon appears like a jumble of disproportionate structures crammed in a small place,ย and yet it is one of the most visited sites in Siem Reap. Unlike Angkor Wat, the Bayon has neither the moat nor temple prakara (a protective wall surrounding the temple). Numerous towers with carved giant smiling faces pop up everywhere inside the temple.
Location
The Bayon Temple is located exactly at the center of Angkor Thom.
History
The temple was commissioned by Jayavarman VII in the late 12th century to be built as his state temple inside the capital city of Angkor Thom which he founded. As mentioned earlier, it was initially built as a Buddhist temple. However, it was converted to a Hindu temple by Jayavarman VIII and it appears many Buddha statues were destroyed and replaced with statues Shiva and Vishnu.
The original name of the Bayon was Vijayagiri (victory hill in Sanskrit). It was likely named after Khmer’s victory over the Champs, who ransacked Angkor Wat after the death of Suryavarman VII, the builder of Angkor Wat. The name Bayon is recent; It is a vernacular version of Banyan, the name given by the French because of the Banyan tree in the complex.
Temple Complex
The temple complex is small compared to the Angkor Wat and it does not have a moat or a prakara, but it does have three concentric enclosures with inner enclosures rising to a higher level. The enclosure has galleries with bas-reliefs on the walls. The bas-reliefs here are not as organized or theme-oriented as in Angkor Wat.
A view of the Bayon Temple from the southwest side
A view of the Bayon temple
Lower Level
The lower level has three concentric square galleries close to each other.
Galleries
The image below shows a view of the temple with the south-side gallery on the right.
A view of the Bayon temple from the south side
Bas-reliefs
The bas-relief depicts the actual events rather than the scenes from the epics as in Angkor Wat.
The image below shows the bas-relief depicting the naval battle in the Tonle Sap Lake between the Khmer and the Champs. This battle was fought in the 13th century ending in Khmer’s victory.
A section of the bas-relief on the lower level gallery of the Bayon temple depicting Khmer vs. Champs naval war
The images of the bas-reliefs below provide a glimpse of how the ordinary people lived in the 12th and 13 century under the Khmer rule.
A section of the bas-relief on the lower level gallery depicting a hunting scene
A section of the bas-relief on the lower level gallery of the Bayon temple depicting a daily life scene
Bas-relief depicting daily life in Khmer Empire
Upper Terrace
The upper terrace dominates with the towers carved with the giant smiling faces. Some of the towers have four faces, each in a cardinal direction leading some experts to believe that the statues represent the Hindu god Brahma. However, it was later established that the Bayon was a Buddhist monument.
These towers are close to each other and in no apparent order. The purpose of these towers is still a big mystery. There are many theories floating around to explain why they were constructed and whom they represent.
According to one theory, the faces represent Avalokitesvara, a Bodhisattva who embodies the values of Buddha. Another theory suggests the faces represent King Jayavarman VII himself who attained the title of Avalokitesvara. Note: It is not unusual to refer a king as Avalokitesvara in the Indian subcontinent during the period when Buddhism was dominant.ย
Towers on the upper level of the Bayon Temple carved with smiling faces
Towers on the upper level of the Bayon Temple carved with smiling faces
The images below show the towers with four heads, each in a cardinal direction.
A tower on the upper level of the Bayon Temple carved with smiling faces
A smiling face carved on the upper-level tower of the Bayon Temple
Copyright ยฉ 2018 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
Located a mile north of Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom is a city founded in the late 12th century by the famed Khmer King Jayavarman VII on the western banks of the Siem Reap River.ย It served as the Khmer capital until the 17th century. The city now contains the ruins of several temples within its limits, some of them already existed when the city was founded and some of them were built by Jayavarman VII and his successors. The most significant among them is Bayon, which was commissioned by Jayavarman VII as the state temple.
The city of Angkor Thom has four gates, one each on the cardinal direction. The ruins of the south gate are one of the most photographed structures in Siem Reap and visited by most tourists.
South Gate
The south gate is on the banks of Siem Reap River, which flows into the Tonle Sap Lake.ย The pathway leading to the gate is on a bridge over this river. Lined on the left side of the pathway are the statues of devas (demigods) and on the right side are the statues of asuras (demons). Both devas and asuras are sitting on the body of a naga (serpent).
Pathway leading to the south gate of Angkor Thom
Statues of asuras (demons) on the pathway to the south gate of Angkor Thom
A statue of a deva on the pathway to the south gate of Angkor Thom
The upper part of the gate has four towers, each of which is carved with a statue of the head pointing to a cardinal direction. Standing on the lower part on both sides of the doorway are the sculptures of Indra’s vehicle Airavata, which is a three-headed elephant. Above Airavata are the damaged and weathered statues of Indra and Devas.
Angkor Thom South Gate
Angkor Thom south gate – Indra seated on a three-headed elephant
Copyright ยฉ 2018 – 2019ย by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
Dedicated originally to Vishnu, the magnificent temple complex of Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument built anywhere in the world. Considered an architectural marvel, the temple is an imposing sight with a majestic facade and five tall towers that can be seen from a distance. The symmetry and precision with which the temple complex was built are striking. Because of the symmetry, all the five towers on the top can only be seen at a certain angle.Built like a mountain having three concentric enclosures with inner enclosures higher than the outer ones, Angkor Wat is filled with repetitive and recursive structures that are pleasing to the eye. These structures include pillars, roofs, galleries, doorways with lintels and pediments, and gopuras (towers). In-spite of Angkor Wat’s grand scale, it gives an impression of a harmonious architecture because of its open spaces, the proportionality of the architectural elements and seamless blending with the surroundings.
Angkor Wat – An Architectural Marvel
Dedicated originally to Vishnu, the magnificent temple at Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument in the world. Considered an architectural marvel, it is an awe-inspiring sight with a majestic facade and five tall and imposing towers, which are visible from a great distance. The symmetry and precision with which the temple was built are striking. Because of the perfect symmetry, all the towers are only visible at a certain angle.
Built like a mountain consisting of three concentric enclosures with inner enclosures higher than the outer ones, Angkor Wat is filled with repetitive and recursive structures that are pleasing to the eye. These structures include pillars, roofs, galleries, doorways with lintels and pediments, and gopuras (towers). Despite Angkor Wat’s grand scale, it gives an impression of harmonious architecture because of its open spaces, the proportionality of the architectural elements and seamless blending with the surroundings.
Unlike many other famous monuments, it was never really abandoned and was in use continuously since its inception. Although it was built as a Hindu temple with cultural and religious influences from India, the architecture and building techniques were unique to Cambodia. There are no Hindu or Buddhist monuments in the Indian subcontinent that are as massive as Angkor Wat. The temple was built with local ingenuity and talent that existed for many centuries, even before the Khmer rulers came to power.
The people of Cambodia are very proud of their heritage, and it is evident from the fact that the Cambodian flag carries the image of Angkor Wat. During the civil war in the 70s and 80s, monuments did not suffer any damage as the rival sides were very protective of their heritage.
Archaeological site
Angkor Wat is a part of the larger Angkor Archaeological Park,ย which was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. The preservation and restoration of Angkor Wat started in 1908 by the French and is now being undertaken by the Government of Cambodia with the help of many countries, including Japan, France, and India.
The erosion of the bas-reliefs, especially on the pediments of the doors, is significant compared to Banteay Srei, which was built 200 years before Angkor Wat. The main reason for this erosion is the quality and type of sandstone used.
History
Angkor Wat was built by King Suryavarman II in the 12th century at the height of Khmer civilization. The temple was originally dedicated to Vishnu, one of the Trimurti (Trinity) of Hinduism. Even though the predecessors of Suryavarman II were devotees of Shiva, he became a devotee of Vishnu for an unknown reason. The temple became a Buddhist monument later and underwent some changes.
By any stretch of imagination, building a monument of this magnitude is a massive undertaking. It is amazing how the structure as enormous as Angkor Wat was completed in 36 years. It uses more stone blocks than the Giza Pyramid. Almost every part of the building is decorated with intricate carvings and sculptures. According to an inscription, it took 300,000 workers and 6000 elephants to complete the job. The sandstone slabs needed to build the temple were quarried from the Phnom Kulen mountains and transported to the site using elephants.
Purpose
There is a lot of debate among experts as to why this massive monument was built. Some claim that it was built as a mausoleum for Suryavarman II, the Khmer king who commissioned this monument. Some believe his body was buried under the central tower of the temple.
The Khmer people practiced their religion by mixing their ancestral belief system with Hindu traditions and philosophy. The Khmer rulers started their own brand of Hinduism known as the Devaraja cult. According to this belief system, the king is a devaraja (god-king in Sanskrit) who is divine and allowed to rule with divine authority.
Although Angkor Wat was built as a Hindu temple, it broke many traditions of the Hindu temple architecture. The main one is its orientation. Whether it is in India or Southeast Asia, almost all the Hindu temples are built facing east, a direction considered sacred because the sun, a source of energy and light, rises in that direction. In contrast, the Angkor Wat Temple faces west, the sunset direction. This is one of the reasons why the experts believe Angkor Wat is more of a mausoleum than a temple.
Angkor Wat, the heavenly city of Vishnu
The original name of Angkor Wat was Vrah Vishnuloka, which in Sanskrit means the sacred abode of Vishnu. The name Angkor Wat became prevalent once the Khmer rulers started following Buddhism.
The name Angkor Wat means temple city in the Khmer language. The world angkor was derived from nakor, which was borrowed from the Sanskrit word nagara, which means city. Wat in Khmer means the temple. It is again derived from the Sanskrit word vata, which means enclosure.
As the name suggests, Angkor Wat is a city with a temple complex. It covers an area of 200 hectares with many rectangular shaped concentric enclosures.
Moat
Moat surrounding the temple complex
A large moat surrounds the city. As you can see from the image, the moat is still filled with water and has steps to access it. It is about 650 ft wide and 4 ft deep and encompasses the entire temple perimeter of 3 miles.
The moat served an important purpose from the architectural standpoint. It helped to stabilize the massive Angkor Wat structures by keeping the groundwater at a steady level, i.e., it acts as a reservoir that does not let the groundwater go down too low or high. This is one of the reasons why the Angkor Wat structures are almost intact even after 1000 years.
The next inner enclosure is the actual city that housed many royal buildings, none of which have survived. Experts believe the king and the nobility lived in these buildings.
Causeway
A restored statue of seven-headed Sheshanaga at the beginning of the causeway
On the west side of Angkor Wat, there is a causeway that begins at the outer bank of the moat and ends at the temple complex. There is a similar causeway on the eastern side, but a shorter one. Both the causeways are built on top of the moat.
The image shows the statue of multi-headed Sheshanaga (king of serpents) at the beginning of the causeway.
Outer enclosure
The causeway over the moat leads to the main entrance of the outer enclosure of the temple. The entrance structure has three gopuras, the middle one being the taller than the other two and the entry point.
Entrance to the outer enclosureMoat and the causeway at the entrance to the outer enclosure
Entrance to the outer enclosure of the Angkor Wat Temple
Statue of Vishnu inside a gopura of the outer enclosure entrance
The southern gopura of this structure shelters a statue of Vishnu, which according to some experts stood inside the principal sanctuary, i.e., the uppermost terrace of the temple.
The standard iconography of Vishnu shows him with four arms, but this sculpture has four additional arms. Vishnu with 8-arms is known as Ashtabhuja Vishnu (8-armed Vishnu).
Check the following pages for the other Ashtabhuja Vishnu depictions.
A spectacular view of the entrance from the top level
A view of the outer entrance from the top-most level of Angkor Wat Temple
The image shows the space between the outer entrance and the temple complex. At the far end, the image shows part of the gallery consisting of three gopuras at the perimeter of the outer enclosure. The middle gopura is taller than the other two and is the entrance.
At the near end, the image shows the pediment of the door located on the lower level gallery. The bas-relief on the pediment depicts a scene from the Battle of Kurukshetra, an episode from the Hindu epic Mahabharata.
A library inside the outer enclosure
A causeway connects the outer entrance to the main entrance of the temple. The two similar looking library structures are situated on either side of the causeway.
The image shows one of the library structures seen in the above image.
Reflective ponds
North-side pond on the outer enclosure
The outer enclosure has two ponds, one on the south and another on the north. These ponds were not part of the original monument but were built sometime in the 16th century. The north side pond is where the tourists gather in the morning to view Angkor Wat at sunrise. If the weather is right, the sunrise offers a spectacular view of the temple with its reflection on the pond.
Magnificent temple complex built with symmetry and precision
The diagram shows the ground plan of the Angkor Wat Temple. Note: It is not drawn to scale.
Angkor Wat Temple Layout
The Angkor Wat Temple is oriented along the east-west axis, and as mentioned before, it is facing west, i.e., the main entrance is on the west side. The layout of the structures is symmetrical about the east-west axis. In other words, the structures on the north and south of this axis are the mirror images.
The temple complex consists of three rectangular-shaped concentric enclosures. Within these enclosures, there are three levels of structures. The middle enclosure on the first level supports the second level structures, and the inner enclosure supports the second and third level structures. In other words, the temple complex was built like a three-level pyramid.
Angkor Wat at sunrise
Following the Hindu temple tradition of having a prakara at the outer limits, a rectangular structure surrounds the outer enclosure. This structure has galleries along the cardinal directions with small towers called pavilions built at the four corners. In the middle of the west and east galleries are the entrances. Carved into the walls of the galleries are the bas-reliefs depicting stories and scenes mainly from the Hindu epics such as Ramayana and Mahabharata. Check the Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs page for a detailed descriptions of these bas-reliefs.
A courtyard separates the outer and middle enclosures. On this courtyard, there are two libraries near the west entrance; one on the north and another on the south. A structure known as the Cruciform Cloister connects the west entrance to the middle enclosure. This structure also connects the first level to the second level.
The second and third level also have galleries at the boundaries. At each corner of the second level, there is a small tower connecting the galleries on both sides.
At each corner of the third level, there is a large tower connecting the galleries on both sides. At the middle of the third level is a tall tower which can be seen from all sides. There are four rectangular basins between the middle tower and the four corner towers.
Entrance to the temple complex
Entrance to the Angkor Wat Temple
Galleries
A view of the Angkor Wat Temple from southwest corner showing the west and south galleries
The rectangular gallery structures built on the periphery of the outer enclosure form the prakara of the temple. Note: A prakara in Hindu temple architecture is a protective wall or structure built around the outer perimeter of the temple.
There are four galleries, one in each cardinal direction. At each corner of the gallery-structure is a tower-like structure called pavilion. The image shows a view of the temple from the southwest corner showing the of the west and south galleries and the pavilion where they meet.
The images below show the corridors of the galleries whose inner walls are carved with bas-reliefs depicting various themes from Hindu mythology. The roof is beautifully decorated with rosettes of lotus flowers. Supporting the outer side of the gallery are the square pillars.
East gallery corridor on the lower level of Angkor WatPillars on a corridor of the gallery structure on the lower level of Angkor Wat
Exquisite bas-reliefs
Intricately carved bas-reliefs adorning the gallery walls are one of the main attractions of this temple. The bas-reliefs are divided into eight sections with each gallery having two sections, each of which was carved continuously in the horizontal direction depicting multiple scenes of a theme. Some panels have two or three tiers in the vertical direction. Some part of the bas-reliefs have polished appearance and some still have traces of original paint, especially red.
Check Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs for a detailed description of bas-reliefs on the lower-level galleries.
Libraries – Mysterious structures
Many Khmer temples, including the stunningly beautiful Banteay Srei, have libraries near the entrance. Built like mini shrines, the libraries are the unique elements of the Khmer temple architecture. Although their exact purpose is still a mystery, the likely intention was to use them as repositories of manuscripts.
It is worth noting that there is no concept of libraries in the Hindu temples in India. The Hindu religious texts, which include two epics and 18 Puranas, are large and numerous. The manuscripts of these texts were likely brought from India and were considered precious and sacred. The libraries were likely built to preserve them in a safe place and were designed like shrines to allow people to worship them. However, there is no evidence that the libraries were ever used as repositories of manuscripts.
Library in the courtyardCourtyard with the library and galleries
The temple complex has two identical libraries, one in the south and the other in the north, located at the same distance from the east-west axis. They are near the west side entrance and south and north of the cruciform cloister.
The image on the right shows the library on the south side. The image on the left shows courtyard of the lower terrace, library, and gallery on the south side of the temple. To the north of the library is a structure called the cruciform cloister, a term used by architects to describe these types of structures.
Cruciform Cloister – An excellent example of symmetrical design
A cruciform cloister basin
The term cruciform cloister is used in architecture to describe a cross-like covered structure. The underlying design-principle was used in the Angkor Wat architecture in two locations, one in the lower level and another in the top-most level. The cruciform cloister on the lower level is situated near the entrance on the west side, and it was built to connect the outer enclosure to the middle enclosure of the temple.
The cruciform cloister structure has two perpendicular axial galleries that intersect in the middle to form a cross and four boundary galleries that surround the cross to form a square. The shape of the structure thus looks like a cross surrounded by a square.
Each axial gallery connects to a boundary gallery in the middle. Thus, the resulting structure has four equal-sized quadrants, each of which is enclosed by half of the boundary and half of the axial galleries. As you can see from the image, each quadrant looks like a basin.
The cruciform cloister structure described above is an example of a perfectly symmetrical design. It is symmetrical about the east-west axis as well as the north-south axis.
As you can see from the image, the floor of the basin is paved and has steps to reach it. The construction appears water-tight. So, in all likelihood, it was a temple-tank (kunda or phuskarini), a common feature in Hindu temples. Experts believe that all four basins were filled with water when the temple was in use.
A part of the central gallery on the lower level cruciform cloister
The gallery on the right side (i.e., south side ) of the cruciform cloister is also called Preah Poan (thousand Buddhas) because of thousands of Buddha statues left inside this structure by pilgrims, most of whom came from the neighboring regions and Japan. They erected Buddha statues made of metal, stone, and wood as votive offerings. While the majority of them are lost, some can still be found here, and some are in the storage.
The gallery on the left side is called the Hall of Echoes. Here you hear the echoes of the sound you make at the end of the gallery. This is a common feature in many temples and monuments in India.
The image shows the axial gallery along the east-west direction. As you can see, it has steps at the end leading to the middle terrace.
Middle terrace
A corridor on the middle terraceDeath of Vali carved into the pediment
The middle terrace also has galleries at the perimeter of the rectangular enclosure. Galleries are connected to relatively small gopuras at the end. As you can see from the image on the left, a well-paved corridor is between the uppermost terrace enclosure and the middle terrace galleries. The gallery on the left side of the image ends into a small corner gopura (tower). To the right of the corner gopura is a door to the gallery. The top-level structures are on the right.
The doorways of the galleries and gopuras are beautifully decorated, and always have pediments typically carved with scenes from the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
The image on the right shows a doorway to the middle-level gallery. The lintel (which is just above the door) depicts Indra wielding his weapon Vajrayuda with his right hand while riding his vahana (vehicle) Airavata, a three-headed elephant.
The bas-relief on the pediment (which is above the lintel) depicts a scene based on an episode from Ramayana in which Vali, the Monkey King of Kishkindha, lay dying while his courtiers are mourning and the gods above are watching.
Death of Vali – A poignant episode from Ramayana
According to the story, Sugriva, who is Valiโs younger brother, secretly desires Valiโs throne. When Rama approaches Sugriva seeking his help to find his kidnapped wife Sita, Sugriva sees an opportunity to fulfill his desire. As a condition to look for Ramaโs wife, Sugriva asks Rama to help topple Vali. Rama agrees to this condition and forms an alliance with Sugriva. Rama and Sugriva devise a plan to defeat Vali. According to this plan, Sugriva invites Vali for a duel, and during the fight, Rama, who is waiting on the sidelines, kills Vali with an arrow.
The middle level of the Angkor Wat is less ornate than the lower level. However, the walls and pillars of the galleries are carved with beautiful bas-reliefs of apsaras and devatas. The images show two such reliefs.
Apsaras in the middle terraceApsaras in the middle terrace
The images show apsaras carved in the middle level. As you can see, they are standing gracefully, each with different postures. They are wearing elegant skirts and beautiful jewelry, including necklaces, armlets, bracelets, and anklets. The dangling earrings reach up to their shoulders, and they look like the flowers of the Kror Sang tree. On their head are the intricately carved three-tipped headdresses (except one on the image on the right). The jewelry and costumes in the carvings showcase the richness of the Khmer culture and reflective of how people used to live in the Khmer era.
Note: There is no equivalent English translation for the Sanskrit word apsara. The closest translation is celestial maiden or nymph. In Indian mythology, apsaras are youthful eternal beauties. According to one myth, they are accomplices of gandharvas, who are celestial musicians. Through their singing and dancing, apsaras entertain the gods. Apsaras are one of the by-products of the Samudra Manthana, which was a collaborative effort by devas (demigods) and asuras (demons) to produce amrita, the nectar of immortality. The victorious devas took them to the court of their king, Indra (i.e., heaven). For more details on the Samudra Manthana, check: Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs.
Inspired by the beauty and elegance of the apsara carvings in the Khmer temples, especially in the Angkor Wat, apsaras make up a significant part of cultural dances (ballets) in Cambodia. They wear similar types of jewelry and costumes, including the majestic headdressโ, that appear in the bas-reliefs.
Uppermost terrace
Known as the Bakan, the uppermost terrace is the principal sanctuary of the temple. The access to the Bakan was restricted to the king and high priests. The Bakan symbolizes Mount Meru, which in Hindu mythology is a mythological mountain with five peaks at the center of the Universe and is home to gods and demigods (devas). Mount Meru also appears in Buddhist and Jain texts.
Bakan structure
The uppermost terrace has four equally-sized towers rising from the corners and a taller and bigger tower in the middle. In architectural terms, this forms a quincunx, a geometrical pattern formed by five elements, four of which are placed at the corners and one placed at the center of a square. All the towers have the same conical shape, which symbolizes the bud of a lotus flower sacred in India and Southeast Asia.
From a distance, the towers of Angkor Wat appear similar in shape to the towers of the temples in Prambanan, which were built a few centuries earlier on the island of Java. This goes to show that the Khmer architecture was influenced by the architectures of temples in the neighboring regions rather than India.
Corner towers
The four corner towers are identical in shape and size. Each has two access doorways with steps from the middle terrace corridor. The images below show the views of the corner towers as seen from the middle terrace corridor.
The southeast corner tower on the uppermost terraceSouthwest corner tower on the top level of the Angkor Wat TempleArjuna vs. Karna battle depicted on the pediment of a corner tower in the Bakan
Corner towers of Angkor Wat
The image shows the door of one of the corner towers on the uppermost terrace. The door frame is beautifully decorated. The pediment shows a scene from the Battle of Kurukshetra.
Cruciform Cloister
A basin on the uppermost terrace on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia.
At the boundaries of the Bakan are the four galleries, each connecting to a corner tower at both ends. An axial gallery in each cardinal direction perpendicular to the boundary gallery connects that boundary gallery to the central tower. The four boundary galleries and four axial galleries form a cruciform cloister structure, just like the one in the lower level.
The image shows a boundary gallery connected the axial gallery and one of four basins formed by this arrangement.
Entrances to the Bakan
An outer view of an entrance to the uppermost terraceSteps to an entrance to the uppermost terrace
At the middle of each boundary gallery on the outer side is a porch that was used as an entrance. When the temple was built, the Bakan had all the four entrances open. Once the temple became a Buddhist monument, three of the entrances were closed and statues of Buddha were installed on the vestibule.
The image on the left shows the outer view of one of the porches of the entrance as seen from the uppermost terrace itself. On the left, it shows a section of the outer wall of the north gallery ending into an entrance. Also seen on the right are the middle terrace corridor and the north library on the lower level courtyard.
The image on the right is a view from the middle corridor of the steps to the same entrance shown in the above image. As you can see, the steps to enter the Bakan from the middle terrace are steep.
Galleries
Surrounding the uppermost terrace are the galleries. The image on the left shows an inside view of the gallery. Although not as ornate as the middle terrace, some of the walls and pillars have carvings of apsaras .
The left image shows a pillar with intricate and detailed carving of two smiling apsaras with perfect anatomy standing elegantly with the flowers in their hands. As you can see, they are wearing exquisite jewelry on their necks, hands, legs, ears, and around the waists. The dangling earrings reach up to their shoulders, and they look like the flowers of the Kror Sang tree. Adorning their heads are intricately carved three-tipped mukutas (headdresses). Both the apsaras are wearing different but elegant dresses decorated with beautiful flowery patterns.
Apsaras carved on a pillar in the BakanGallery on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia
Buddha statues
The Bakan has many Buddha statues, which were installed after the Angkor Wat temple was converted to a Buddhist monument.
A statue of sleeping Buddha on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat TempleA statue of Buddha on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat TempleBuddha with the Dhyana Mudra gesture seated on Adishesha
The rightmost image shows the Buddha statue seated on a seven-headed serpent (naga) placed on the eastern gallery. Buddha is in a mediating state indicated by his hand gesture (mudra). This statue is an interesting combination of Hinduism and Buddhism. The seven-headed serpent on whom Buddha is seated is the king of nagas known as Seshanaga (a.k.a Adishesha) whom Vishnu often uses as a bed. The sculpture confirms the belief that Buddha is one of the avatars (manifestations) of Vishnu.
Central tower
Center tower on the uppermost terrace of the Angkor Wat temple
The image shows a view of the central tower as seen from the uppermost terrace (i.e., Bakan). This imposing structure is exactly in the middle of the uppermost terrace. The height of the tower is 700 feet from the ground.
Experts believe that King Suryavarman II was buried under this tower. However, excavations under this tower and elsewhere have not discovered a body or significant funerary objects, except for a rectangular stone object, possibly a part of the sarcophagus, and some objects that might have helped a body to be placed in a fetal position. If the grave existed, it was most likely plundered or moved to another location when the temple was converted into a Buddhist monument.
Known for its exceptional beauty, intricate carvings, and fine workmanship, Banteay Srei is a gem among hundreds of temples that dot the Cambodian landscape. Located 16 miles northeast of Siem Reap, it isย relatively a small temple complex containing multiple single-story structures. Unlike many other temples in Cambodia, it is not built like a temple-mountain.Dedicated to Shiva, the Banteay Srei Temple has some of the stunningly beautiful bas-reliefs that depict gods, demigods and scenarios based on the episodes from the Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. The bas-reliefs, most of which adorn the pediments, are deeply cut and finely carved. Even after 1000 years, most of the sculptures and bas-reliefs have retained their original sharpness.
A Masterpiece of Khmer Temple Art
Known for its exceptional beauty, intricate carvings, and fine workmanship, Banteay Srei is a gem among hundreds of temples that dot the Cambodian landscape. It is a smaller temple complex containing multiple single-story structures. Unlike many other temples in Cambodia, it is not built like a temple-mountain.
The Banteay Srei Temple has some stunningly beautiful bas-reliefs that depict gods, demigods, and scenes based on the episodes narrated in the Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. The bas-reliefs are deeply cut and finely carved. Even after 1000 years, the carvings have retained their original sharpness.
Unlike most of the other Cambodian temples, Banteay Srei was built predominantly using red sandstone. Because of the color and texture of the sandstone, its carvings appear pleasant and colorful.
Banteay Srei is about 16 miles northeast of Siem Reap and is on the way to the Phnom Kulen mountain range. Many tourists who visit Angkor Wat often miss Banteay Srei because it is not in the Siem Reap region, home to many well-known Hindu/Buddhist temples. You can accomplish the Phnom Kulen and Banteay Srei visits in a single-day trip.
A Bit of History
Banteay Srei is unique in that it is commissioned not by a king (like many other famous temples in the region) but by the courtiers of a king. Yagnavaraha and Vishnukumara were the courtiers who built this temple on the land granted to them by King Rajendravarman. According to an inscription, Yagnavaraha is the grandson of King Harshavarman and the teacher of the future king Jayavarman V. He was known to be a great scholar, philosopher, and philanthropist who fought for justice.
The building of this temple started in 967 CE. The name Banteay Srei is recent, which in Khmer means Citadel of Women or Citadel of Beauty. The name could be referring to the beautiful carvings of women (apsaras and devatas) on the bas-reliefs.
The original name of Banteay Srei was Tribhuvanamaheshwara, which refers to Shiva as the Lord of the Earth, Heaven, and Hell. Note: In Sanskrit, Tribhuvana means three worlds or realms consisting of earth, heaven and hell, and Maheshwara means great god.
The town surrounding the temple used to be known as Isvarapura, which in Sanskrit means Isvara’s town. Isvara is another name for Shiva. After the temple was built, Isvarapura became a town having residents supporting the temple.
Temple Complex
A view of the Banteay Srei Temple from the outer enclosure
As mentioned, the Banteay Srei Temple was surrounded by a town. The entrance to the temple is through the town gopura (gate), located on the east side. The town gate opens into a long causeway, which leads to the main entrance to the temple.
The Banteay Srei Temple complex has three rectangular concentric enclosures built on the east-west axis. The main temple structures are in the innermost enclosure. The innermost and the middle enclosures are close to each other and are surrounded by brick walls. Separating the outer and middle enclosures is a moat.
The entrance to the temple complex is on the east side and is through a gopura built with an ornate door an exquisitely carved pediment above it. The door opens into the causeway, which leads to the eastern entrance to the outer enclosure.
Gate and Causeway
Entrance to the temple complexPediment of the gopura
The gate at the eastern entrance to the temple
Causeway from the entrance to the middle enclosure
The gopura (gate) is mostly made of red sandstone. The door frame and the pediment are beautifully carved. The bas-relief on the pediment depicts Indra riding his vehicle three-headed elephant called Airavata. At each end of the pediment is Makara, a mythical sea creature, spewing multi-headed naga, a mythical serpent.
According to an inscription, this gate used to be the entrance to Isvarapura. It is believed that a wooden wall existed surrounding Isvarapura.
The causeway that leads to the outer enclosure is about 67 meters long. There are 32 boundary marking stones lined along the path.
Outer Enclosure
The outer enclosure measures 110 x 95 sq m, and a laterite wall encloses it. The original construction had the gopuras in the middle of the east and west walls. Only the west gopura exists now, and part of the east gopura is lying on the ground where the original gopura once stood.
Pediment from the east gopura depicting the Ravana abducting Sita scene
The image on the left shows this structure. It is the east-facing pediment of this gopura, and the west-facing pediment is on display at a museum in France.
As you can see from the image, the bas-relief on this pediment depicts Ravana abducting Sita, a well-known episode in Ramayana in which Ravana, a rakshasa and the King of Lanka, kidnaps Sita, Rama’s wife.
Gopura on the west side of the outer enclosure
The image shows the west gopura with an ornate pediment. The beautifully carved bas-relief on the pediment depicts Shiva and his consort Parvati (a.k.a Uma) seated on his vehicle Nandi, the bull.
Under Nandi is Kaala, the time demon often associated with Shiva, who, according to Hindu mythology, is the timekeeper of the universe and controls the time cycles by creation, preservation, and destruction.
Surrounding the bas-relief is the decorative carving of Makara, a mythical sea creature, disgorging yakshas from its heads on the left and right ends.
Note: Yakshas in Hindu mythology are the demigods who protect natural treasures, such as water and forests.
Middle Enclosure
The middle enclosure measures 38 x 42 sq m and has gopuras on the east and west sides connected by a brick wall, some portions of which have collapsed. The causeway mentioned before leads to this enclosure, and the moat filled with water on either side of this causeway surrounds this enclosure.
The gopuras on the middle enclosure are ornate with exquisitely carved artwork of creative patterns and narrative bas-reliefs.
East Gopura
The image shows the east-facing view of the eastern wall with a gopura in the middle. As you can see, it is an elaborate structure with three doorways and extending it on either side is the brick wall that surrounds this enclosure.
Gopura on the east side
The approach to the middle enclosure is through a causeway, i.e., the mud path in front of the gopura. A small part of the moat can be seen in the image on either side of this causeway. A narrow terrace surrounds the wall on its outer side, separating the moat and the wall.
Just like the other gopuras in the temple, the east gopura has two facades: east facing and west facing. The faรงade shown in the image is the former. The middle door of this gopura is flanked on either side by a false window and a door. The two identical structures visible behind the gopura are the libraries situated inside the inner enclosure. The structures within the middle and inner enclosures harmoniously blend with the surroundings.
East facing pediment
The image shows the pediment above the middle door. In the center of this highly ornate pediment is a triangular area with a beautifully carved bas-relief depicting Kaala, a time monster associated with Shiva as he is the timekeeper of the universe, and an unidentified deity above Kaala.
The rest of this triangular area is filled with foliage. Enclosing this area is an exquisitely carved artwork of symmetrical patterns.
Gaja Lakshmi
Gaja Lakshmi
The west-facing pediment depicts Gaja Lakshmi – one of the eight avatars of Lakshmi- seated on a lotus flower flanked by two gajas (elephants ) performing abhisheka (showering with water and food) and riding Uluka the Owl. Uluka is often associated with Lakshmi, but not always as her vahana (vehicle).
Lakshmi is Vishnu’s wife and goddess of wealth in Hindu mythology. She is known as Ashtalakshmi because of her eight avatars (manifestations), each symbolizing an aspect of wealth. The Gaja Lakshmi avatar symbolizes wealth through strength. According to a myth, Gaja Lakshmi is a by-product of Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk).
Note: Angkor Wat has a bas-relief depicting the story of the Samudra Manthana carved on the eastern gallery located at the lower level of the temple.
West Gopura
Vali – Sugriva fight depicted on the west gopura Kaala (time demon) depicted on the lintel of the west gopura
Gopura on the west side of the middle enclosure
The pediment depicts the fight between the brothers Vali and Sugriva and Rama is trying to help Sugriva. This popular theme from Hindu epic Ramayana is portrayed in many Hindu temples in India and Southeast Asia.
Surrounding Walls
Walls of inner and middle enclosures of the Banteay Srei temple
The inner and middle enclosures are much closer than the outer and middle enclosures. Both the inner and outer enclosures are surrounded by brick walls. As seen in the image below, a narrow empty space separates the enclosures.
Inner Enclosure
This is where the main temple structures are located. The enclosure measures 24 x 24 sq m with a brick wall surrounding it. Built inside this enclosure are the main temple structures, including two libraries and three sanctuary towers. Attached to the middle sanctuary tower is mantapa, a covered hall with an entrance facing east and side entrances facing north and south.
Structures in the innermost enclosure – A view from the northeast side
The image shows the view of the innermost enclosure from the northeast side. The rightmost structure is the north library and next to it is the east gopura. The structure that has two kneeling dwarapalakas (guardians of the door) in front is the mantapa. The tips of the three sanctuary towers are seen at the far end of the image.
Structures in the innermost enclosure – A view from the southwest side
The image above shows the view of the innermost enclosure from the southwest side. The leftmost structure is the south library and next to it is the east gopura. The view shows the west-facing facades of these structures. The three sanctuary towers are in the front.
Structures in the innermost enclosure – A view from the northwest side
The image shows the view of the innermost enclosure from the northwest side. The rightmost structure is the north library and next to it is the east gopura. The view shows the west-facing facades of these structures. The three sanctuary towers are in the front.
Gopuras
The image shows the east-facing facade of the east gopura. The door frame and the pediment of this gopura are beautifully decorated.
Gopura and entrance to the inner enclosureShiva Tandava Nritya (Shiva’s Cosmic Dance) Nandi in front of the east gopura
The pediment depicts the scene Shiva Tandava Nritya, i.e., Shiva performing his cosmic dance of creation, preservation, and destruction.
The lintel depicts Indra, the dikpala (guardian) of the east direction, riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. Each Airavata head is shown as a monster-like figure attached to the elephant head. As you can see from the image below, Indra, whose head is missing, is holding the elephant trunk with the right hand, and the monster head with the left hand. The other two Airavata heads are at the ends.
A damaged statue of Nandi is in front of the gopura.
Mysterious Libraries
Built like mini shrines, the libraries are the unique elements of the Khmer temple architecture. Although their exact purpose is still a mystery, the likely intention of building them was to use them as repositories of manuscripts. It is worth noting that there is no concept of libraries in the architectures of Hindu temples in India.
The Hindu religious texts, which include four Vedas, two epics and 18 Puranas, are large and numerous. The manuscripts of these texts were likely brought from India and were considered precious and sacred. The libraries were likely built to preserve them in a safe place and were designed like shrines to allow people to worship them. However, there is no evidence that the libraries were ever used as repositories of manuscripts.
Located near the entrance of the inner enclosure, the two identically designed library structures, one on the north and the other on the south, are equidistant from the center. In other words, they are like the mirror images of each other.
They are aligned along the east-west direction with ornate facades facing east and west, each of which has a beautifully decorated door, lintel and pediment. The facade facing west has the doorway to enter the building, whereas on the east side, there is just a false door built only for decorative purposes.
The bas-reliefs on the pediments depict stories from the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
South Library
The south library is dedicated to Shiva. Both the east and west facades depict stories about Shiva.
East Facade
The east-facing pediment depicts an episode from Ramayana in which Ravana with his 20 hands tries to lift Mount Kailash, the heavenly abode of Shiva and his consort Parvati (a.k.a Uma) as Shiva sits calmly with his consort Parvati on his lap.
East facing facade of the south library
Ravana Shaking Mount Kailash
According to the story, Ravana was enraged by Shivasโ vehicle Nandi who did not let Ravanaโs plane (Pushpak Vimana) to pass over Shivaโs abode. When Ravana tries to lift Mount Kailash, Shiva holds it down, which enrages Ravana further and he starts shaking the mountain.
Ravana shaking Mount Kailash
West Facade
The west-facing pediment depicts a story from Shiva Purana in which Kama (a.k.a Kamadeva), the god of love and carnal desire, strikes Shiva with Kamabana (Kamaโs arrows) to arouse passion and desire in Shiva, who is in the state of meditation.
According to the story, after the death of his wife Sati, Shiva goes into a state of meditation to grieve her death. This results in a great imbalance in the world. Meanwhile, Sati is reborn as Parvati, and all the gods want Shiva to marry Parvati. Sensing this need, Indra sends Kama to arouse passion and desire in Shiva for him to be interested in Parvati.
West-facing facade of the south library Kama firing arrows at Shiva
West-facing south library facade
North Library
The north library is dedicated to Vishnu. Both the east and west facades depict stories about Krishna, who is one of the avatars (manifestation) of Vishnu. The library is built on a raised platform with two levels.
East Facade
The doorway of the facade has a beautifully decorated false door flanked by pilasters. Because this facade is facing east, Indra, who is the dikpala (guardian) of the east, is the theme of the carvings on both the lintel and pediment.
Check the list of Ashta Dikpalas, the eight guardians of directions.
The bas-relief on the lintel depicts Indra riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. As you can see from the image, Indra is in the middle sitting above an elephant head. At each end of the lintel, there is an elephant with a human-like figure sitting on it.
As you can see from the image, there are three pediments. The innermost is the narrowest and is in the front, and the outermost is the widest and is on the back. Each pediment is enclosed by a finely carved creeper which is resting on an intricately decorated pillar.
East facing facade of the north library
Carved into the lowermost pediment is a narrative bas-relief depicting a well-known episode in Mahabharata, Burning of the Khandava Forest. Here is the story in brief:
Burning of the Khandava Forest
According to the story, the fire god Agni wanted to burn the Kandhava Forest because of a stomach ailment. Disguised as a brahmin, he went to Arjuna, one of the Pandavas, and requested that he was hungry and needed to be satiated. Because Arjuna could not refuse a request from a brahmin, he agreed to Agni’s request. Agni then revealed himself and said to Krishna he was hungry, and the only way he could satiate his hunger was to help him consume the Khandava Forest by letting him burn it. Arjuna reluctantly agreed to help him.
The Kandhava Forest was also the home of Takshaka, the king of nagas (snakes), and Maya, the architect of the asuras. When Agni started the fire, Takshaka was not in the forest, but his family was inside. So, he begged his friend Indra, king of the devas (demigods) and heaven, to help them to escape the fire. Indra agreed and used his power to bring rain to the forest to douse the fire. Arjuna tried to stop the rain by creating a layer of arrows. Meanwhile, Krishna stayed on the other side of the forest and helped Arjuna stop the rain.
While this battle was going on, Takshaka’s wife swallowed her son Ashvasena and tried to fly out of the forest. Realizing that she was trying to escape with her son, Arjuna cut her head off with his arrows but could not prevent Ashvasena from escaping the forest.
Maya also escaped the forest and then sought asylum from Arjuna. Eventually, Agni consumed the entire Khandava Forest and cured his stomach ailment.
Burning of the Khandava Forest
This is one of the most beautiful and detailed bas-reliefs in the temple. On the top is Indra riding his vehicle Airavata and trying to bring down the rain on the forest. The layer underneath Indra depicts flowing water, giving an impression of rain coming down. On the left is Arjuna shooting arrows to stop the rain. Below the water, there are two layers of arrows, created by Arjuna, preventing the water from coming down. On the right is Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, holding his signature weapon, Sudarshana Chakra, helping Arjuna. Between Arjuna and Krishna is the forest with a chaotic scene of animals, Takshaka’s family, and Maya and other asuras trying to escape the fire.
Notice the two multi-headed nagas in the middle of the arrow layers. These are Takshakaโs wife and their son Ashvasena. As mentioned in the story, Ashvasena escaped Arjuna’s arrows through the brave action of his mother, who swallowed him to shield him from the barrage of arrows. Although she died in the ordeal, she enabled Ashvasena to escape the fire.
West Facade
The west pediment shows Krishna killing Kamsa, a popular theme portrayed in many Hindu temples in Cambodia and Indonesia (See Prambanan and Prambanan Bas-Reliefs).
Krishna killing KamsaKrishna killing Kamsa
West-facing north library facade
Sanctuary Towers (Prasats)
Aligned along the north-south direction, the three sanctuary towers in the inner enclosure are close to each other and symbolically represent the Hindu Trinity, Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma. The sanctuary towers are the most sacred buildings in the temple.
Each tower has an inner sanctum, i.e., a chamber with the deity. Because Banteay Srei is a Shiva temple, Shiva is considered the dominant god of the trinity. The middle tower is dedicated to Shiva, and to show his dominance, it is taller than the other two. Its inner sanctum likely had a Shivalinga or a statue of Shiva. For this reason, it is taller than the other two towers, which likely had statues of Vishnu and Brahma.
The south and north sanctuary towers have three outward facades, each of which has a door with multi-level pediments and a lintel. The entrance is only on the east side and the rest three facades have false doors. The central tower has only one outward facade, which is on the west side.
Central Sanctuary Tower
The central tower is home to a Shiva Linga inside the inner chamber. It is taller than the other two. There is a mantapa in front of it on the east side. The pediment on the west side depicts Varuna riding three hamsas (sacred swans), the north side depicts Kubera, the south side depicts Yama riding a buffalo and the east side depicts Indra riding Airavata.
Mantapa
The mantapa is a covered hall that leads to the central sanctuary tower and is attached to the east facade of the central sanctuary tower.
North wall of the mantapaSouth wall of the mantapa
The images above show the north and south facing walls of the mantapa. As you can see, the design is similar but the carvings are different. The he doorway in middle and leading to the doorway is a stone staircase on both sides. Guarding the entrance are the two squatting dwarapalakas (guardians of the door), who have human bodies and monkey faces.
In the north wall image, the staircase on the right leads to the east-facing entrance of the north sanctuary tower and is guarded by the bird-faced dwarapalakas. Likewise in the south wall image, the staircase on the left leads to the east-facing entrance of the south sanctuary tower, guarded by lion-faced dwarapalakas.
South Sanctuary Tower
East facing facade of the south sanctuary towerSouth facing facade of the south sanctuary tower
The east-facing facade of the south sanctuary tower facades
The images show the east and south facing facade of the south sanctuary tower. The bottom pediment of the east facing facade depicts Shiva and his consort Parvati (a.k.a Uma) sitting on his vehicle Nandi. The lintel shows Indra riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. The doorway is beautifully decorated. On both sides of the door, devatas are guarding the door and in the front two dwarapalakas (guardians of the door) guard the door. The entrance to this structure is on this facade and the facades on the other three sides have false doors.
The bottom pediment and the lintel of the south facing facade depicts Yama, the god of death and justice, riding his vehicle male buffalo. The doorway with a false door is beautifully decorated. On both sides of the door, devatas are guarding the door.
Carved into the pediment is Kaala (time monster) devouring an elephant, and there is an unidentified deity on top of Kaala. The lintel also depicts Kaala.
North Sanctuary Tower
East facing facade of the north sanctuary tower North facing facade of the north sanctuary tower
The images above shows the east and north facing facades of the north sanctuary tower. The bottom-most scene on the pediment most likely depicts Bhima killing Jarasandha, the king of Magadha, by splitting his body into two. The lintel shows Indra riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. This is the only entrance to the sanctuary tower and the other three sides have false doors. It is guarded by two squatting dwarapalakas (guardians of the door) who have human bodies and faces of mythical bird Garuda who is Vishnu’s vehicle. The door frame is beautifully decorated and it is flanked on either side by devatas standing on top of hamsas (swans).
Unlike the east-facing facade, the north-facing facade has a false door, which is decorated with beautiful artwork. On both sides of the door, beautifully sculpted devatas are guarding the door. The bottom pediment depicts Kubera carried by yakshas and the lintel shows Bhima killing Jarasandha, the king of Magadha, by splitting his body into two.
West facing facade of the north sanctuary tower
The image above shows the west-facing facade of the north sanctuary tower. The bottom pediment depicts Varuna riding three hamsas (swans) and the lintel depicts Kubera carried by a yaksha (Kubera’s vehicle is a man or yaksha). The doorway is beautifully decorated. The door is a false door. On both sides of the door, devatas are guarding the door.
Mycenae is the site where a mysterious late bronze-age civilization rose from nowhere around 1900 BCE,ย flourished mostly in the Peloponnese peninsula,ย and then disappeared suddenly around 1100 BCE. Whatever little we know about the Mycenaean civilization is fascinating.The Mycenaean were a loose confederation of city-states, each of which was ruled by a king.ย The center of the Mycenaean civilization was the city-state of Mycenae. According to a myth, Perseus, a son of Zeus and Danae,ย founded Mycenae. Mycenae was also the capital of legendary King Agamemnon, who defeated Troy.ย Homer refers to the Mycenaean people as Achaeans.
Mycenae is the site where a mysterious late bronze-age civilization rose from nowhere around 1900 BCE, flourished mostly in the Peloponnese peninsula, and then disappeared suddenly around 1100 BCE. Whatever little we know about the Mycenaean civilization is fascinating.
The Mycenaean kingdoms were a loose confederation of city-states, each of which was ruled by a king. The center of the Mycenaean civilization was the city-state of Mycenae. According to a myth, Perseus, a son of Zeus and Danae, founded Mycenae. Mycenae was also the capital of legendary King Agamemnon, who defeated Troy. Homer refers to the Mycenaean people as Achaeans.
The Mycenaeans were believed to be Indo-European people, who migrated from the north and established settlements in Peloponnese. Although the Mycenaeans eventually conquered Minoans of Crete, they had an amicable relationship with the Minoans for a long time. Many aspects of the Mycenaean culture was influenced by the Minoans. When the Mycenaean disappeared abruptly in 1100 BCE, Greece plunged into dark ages.
Location
Mycenae is located on the Peloponnese peninsula 75 miles southwest of Athens, Greece.
Archaeological Site
The was site was discovered in the 1870s by the German businessman and amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann who was already famous for discovering the city of Troy.
The site is on a hill and the ruins are visible from a distance.
A view of the surroundings from the Mycenae citadelA view from the top of the Mycenae citadel
Views from the Mycenae citadel
Cyclopean Wall
A massive wall known as the Cyclopean Wall surrounded the Mycenae citadel. Legend has it that Perseus, the founder of Mycenae, employed Cyclopes, mythical giants from Asia, to build this wall to protect the citadel. The Cyclopean Wall owes its name to them.
The image shows a section of the Cyclopean wall, built with irregularly shaped stones of different sizes without using mortar or cement. As you can see, the stones fit perfectly. Considered an engineering marvel, it has withstood the ravages of time, including earthquakes. This wall was the model for polygonal walls built later in Greece. The Polygonal Wall in Delphi is an example.
The cyclopean wall at the Mycenae citadel
Lion Gate
Built around 13th century BCE, the Lion Gate is the entrance to the citadel at Mycenae and attached to it is the Cyclopean Wall. The sculpture above the lintel of the gate has a pillar flanked by two headless lions. It is believed that the original sculpture had the heads of lions made of metal.
Lion Gate
Pausanias (110 -180 CE), a Greek traveler and historian, wrote about the Lion Gate in his book, Descriptions of Greece, which was used to identify Mycenae citadel by the archaeologists.
Grave Circle A
Grave Circle A is the site of a cemetery located inside the Mycenae citadel. The cemetery is enclosed by two rows of circular walls formed by stone slabs. When this site was excavated, six shaft graves with the bodies of 19 people, including men, women, and children were found. Each grave had a mound and stelae. Also found in the grave are funerary objects, including a golden death mask, gold and silver cups, rings, buttons, bracelets, and daggers.
Grave Circle AGrave Circle AGrave Circle A layout
Grave Circle A
Heinrich Schliemann, who discovered the cemetery in the 1870s, believed that the legendary King Agamemnon was buried there. However, the site is dated 17th or 16th century BCE, which is well before the time of King Agamemnon. Experts are not sure who was buried in this site but believe that the bodies belong to high-ranking people from the Mycenae civilization, probably the royalty.
Mycenae Palace
The Mycenae palace is located at the highest point on the Acropolis. The ruins visible today belong to the building constructed in the 13th century BCE. Only the foundations and floor paving of some rooms have survived. The archaeological evidence suggests that the site likely had many variations of the building before the current one.
The palace complex had a large courtyard and a megaron (meeting hall). The megaron consisted of a portico, prodomos (anteroom or open vestibule), and the main hall, whose principal space (known as domos) consisted of a circular hearth and four columns supporting the roof. See the model of the palace below.
People gathered in the megaron to conduct palace business. It was destroyed, most likely by fire, in the late 13th century BCE, and was rebuilt in the 12th century.
Ruins of the Mycenae PalaceMycenae Palace WallLayout of the Mycenae Palace
Mycenae palace
Cistern
A large underground cistern supplied water to the Mycenae citadel. The image below shows the entrance to the tunnel that led to a large underground cistern which received water collected from a natural spring through underground aqueducts.
Entrance to the underground cisternA cistern
Mycenae cistern
North Gate
North gate at the Mycenae citadel
The north gate is the second gate of the citadel, and the path from this gate led to the palace megaron. Built around 1250 BCE, the north gate had double wooden doors with a sliding bolt to lock them.
Agamemnon Tomb (Treasury of Atreus)
Located on the Panagitsa hill near the Mycenae citadel and dated between 1350 and 1330 BCE, the Agamemnon Tomb is a massive dome-like structure with an entrance similar to the Lion Gate. It owes its name to its discoverer Heinrich Schliemann, who assumed that the tomb was built for King Agamemnon of the Trojan war fame. However, there is no evidence to suggest that the tomb indeed belonged to him. In fact, it was built well before his time.
The Agamemnon Tomb is a bee-hive type of a tomb. Also known as the Tholos tombs, the bee-hive tombs were prevalent in the Peloponnese Peninsula in the late bronze age. They get their name because of the dome-structure and their resemblance to the beehive.
This monument was referred to as Treasury of Atreus by the Greek traveler Pausanias who visited this site in the 2nd century CE.
Entrance to the tomb
Entrance to the Tomb of Agamemnon
It has a remarkable entrance with a long passageway and a doorway similar to the Lions Gate in design. The lintel above the door is a massive stone weighing about 120 tons. The triangular space above the lintel is empty but likely housed some sculptures.
Passageway
Passageway wall of the entrance to the Tomb of Agamemnon
The passageway is long with a wall on each side. The shape of most of the stones on the wall is rectangular, but there are some polygonal stones as well. The stones were cut precisely to fit the wall perfectly, and despite the differences in their sizes and shapes, it appears no mortar was used to bind them. As you can see in the image below, some of the stones on these walls are massive.
Chamber
The chamber of the Agamemnon Tomb is a dome with a diameter of 14.5 meters and a height of 13 meters. Considering the time period in which it was built, the construction of the dome was considered a great engineering feat.
Roof of Agamemnon TombInterior of Tomb of Agamemnon
Located on the Elis region of the Peloponnese peninsula,Olympia in ancient times was a sanctuary famous for starting the tradition of the Olympic Games. The first games were held in 776 BCE, and they were continued to be held every four years until the 4th century CE. The modern Olympic Games were modeled after these games.
In addition to the Olympic Games, Olympia was known for two magnificent temples: Temple of Zeus and Temple of Hera. The statue of Zeus, which was housed in the Temple of Zeus, is considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
The Sanctuary at Olympia is also known as the Sanctuary of Altis. There are a lot of similarities between the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi and the Sanctuary of Altis. Like Delphi, Olympia was a religious sanctuary and housed temples, votive buildings, statues, treasuries, and administrative buildings. Both the sanctuaries held games every four years. Unlike Delphi, which is on a mountain slope, Olympia is on a level space.
The excavation of Olympia started in 1829 by the French and continued by the Germans in 1875. The excavation was then taken up by the Greek Government in the 20th century and is still continuing.
The archaeological site of Olympia currently has ruins of ancient structures, some of which are restored. The Olympia Archaeological Museum is located near the site and has on display many precious artifacts recovered from the site.
Location
Olympia is north of the Alpheios River and south of Mount Kronos. Theย Kladeos River,ย a tributary ofย Alpheios,ย runs through this area.
Olympic Games
In ancient Greece, the Olympic Games was one of the four in Panhellenic Games held at an interval of four years at Olympia. The other three were: Pythian Games,ย Nemean Games, andย Isthmian Games. Theย Olympic Games was the most important one and used to measure time in years. An Olympiad is a period of four years in which the Olympic Games was held in year one,ย Nemean Games andย Isthmian Games were held in year two and four andย Pythian Gamesย was held in year three.
The Olympic Games started as a festival honoring Zeus in which a series of competitions, including foot race, javelin throw, wrestling and chariot race, were held between the representatives of Greek city-states.ย As the Olympic Games gained popularity, it lost its religious character and became an athletic and social event.ย Because Greek city-states frequently fought among themselves, an Olympic truce was declared to temporarily stop all warfare during the games.
The winners were crowned with olive leaf wreaths and winning the competition was very prestigious for a city-state. Only men with proven Greek ancestry were allowed to compete in the games. Women were neither allowed to compete nor watch the events. Politics became part of the games as city-states asserted their dominance over their rivals when they won the competitions.
Olympic Stadium
The ancient stadium at Olympia is located on the east side of the sanctuary and had the capacity to hold about 45,000 spectators.
Entrance
Arch at the entrance to the ancient Olympic Games stadium
The stadium had an arched entrance called Krypteย on the western side of the stadium facing the sanctuary. Only the athletes and the officials were allowed to use this entrance. This entrance was built around the late 3rd century BCE.
The images below show the arched way at the Olympia archaeological site.
Race Track
The race track had stone markers at the starting and ending lines. The length of the track between the starting and ending markers is 192.27 meters and the width is 28.50 meters. A stone ridge ran along the perimeter of the track.
Stadium with the race track where the ancient Olympic Games were held
Starting line marker embedded on the race track
Ancient race track
The stadium had permanent stone seats only for the judges and officials. It may have had wooden benches for the spectators.
Temple of Zeus
As the name suggests, this massive temple was built to honor Zeus, the king of the Greek gods. The construction of this temple began in 472 BCE and completed in 457 BCE, and was the main attraction of Olympia for about 800 years.
Ruins of Temple of Zeus
The remaining column of Temple of Zeus
The ruins of the Temple of Zeus
Architecture
The Temple of Zeus is a Doric style building with east-west orientation with the following dimensions: height 68 feet, width 95 and length 230 feet. The temple had three areas, a porch in the front, similar arrangement in the back and a cella in the middle. The temple stood on a platform with three unequal steps.
It had 6 columns each on the front and back and 13 columns on each side. Located above the columns were Doric friezes with 12 metophes. On the front and back of the temple, there were pediments located on top of the frieze. The lion-headed water sprouts ran along the temple. The figures on the pediments were identified by Pausanias, the Greek historian who visited the Temple of Zeus in the 2nd century BCE.
East Pediment
According to Pausanias, the east pediment on the Temple of Zeus depicted the chariot race that was about to begin between Oenomaos and Pelops. Oenomaos was the king of Pisa and Pelops was a suitor of Hippodameia, the daughter of Oenomaos.
At the center of the pediment is Zeus observing the chariot race,ย and was flanked by two heroes. The figures at the two ends represent the two rivers of Olympia, Alpheios and Kladeos.
The images below show the statues that were restored from the fragments excavated near the Temple of Zeus and are now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.
Sculptures from the east pediment of Temple of Zeus at Olympia
Statues from the east pediment of the Temple of Zeus
Statues of an old seer and two spectators from the eastern pediment of Temple of Zeus
Remnants of east pediment statues
West Pediment
The theme of the west pediment is the fight between the Lapiths and Centaurs. The restored structures portray the abduction of the Lapith women by the Centaurs.
At the center of this pediment is Apollo who is flanked by two heroes, Theseus and Peirithoos.
Sculptures on the west pediment of Temple of Zeus portraying the fight between the Centaurs and Lapiths
Statue of Apollo in the middle of the west pediment of Temple of Zeus at Olympia
Sculptures on the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus portraying the fight between the Centaurs and Lapiths
Remnants of west pediment statues
Water sprouts
Statue of Zeus
A huge chryselephantine (made of ivory and gold) statue of Zeus stood inside the Temple of Zeus. The statue of Zeus is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although no fragments of this statue were ever discovered, many ancient coins of that period show different aspects of it. The Greek historian Pausanias, who visited Olympia in the 2nd century CE, also describe the statue.
The statue had Zeus seated on a throne carved with elaborate decorations that included the statues of other Greek gods Apollo, Artemis, and Nike. It was 42 feet high and 21 feet wide.
The statue was sculpted by the famous Athenian sculptor Phidias whose workshop was discovered near the temple. He started its construction in 432 BCE and took 12 years to complete it.
The statue was taken to Constantinople (currently Istanbul, Turkey) for safekeeping in 392 CE, but ironically destroyed in a fire 60 years later.
Destruction
The Byzantine Emperor Theodosius ordered it to be closed in 426 CE because of pagan practices. The temple was burnt and what was left was later destroyed in an earthquake in the 6th century.
Temple of Hera
Ruins of the Temple of Hera
Built around 590 BCE, this Doric style temple is one of the oldest temples in Greece and is located on the north-west corner of Altis. It is dedicated to Hera, the wife of Zeus and the queen of Greek gods.
The Temple of Hera was built more than a century before the construction of the Temple of Zeus during the period when God was considered a woman. The temple had three distinct areas: Pronaos (Front Porch), Cella (Inner Chamber), and Opisthodomos (Back Porch).
It had 6 columns each on the front and back and 16 column on each side. The columns were wooden initially but were gradually replaced by columns made from stones.
Olympia: Statue of female head excavated near the Temple of Hera
According to Pausanias, who visited this site in the 2nd century CE, the cella had the statue of Hera on the throne and the statue of Zeus standing next to her.
The image shows the head of a woman excavated near the Temple of Hera. Experts believe that the head belongs to the statue of Hera erected inside the temple.
The opisthodomos of the temple had a Chest of Kypselos, which was made of wood, ivory, and gold and decorated with mythological scenes.
The temple was remodeled many times. The Romans used it as a museum to stores treasures of the sanctuary. The marble statue of Hermes carrying the infant Dionysus sculpted by Praxiteles was one of them.
Zeus Holding Ganymedes
Statue of Zeus holding Ganymede
The statue depicting Zeus carrying Ganymedes is on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum. It is made of terracotta and dated between 480 and 470 BCE, and is most likely an acroterion (apex or end piece of a pediment) of a temple.
Philippeion
Philippeionย was built by Philip II, the king of Macedonia and the father of Alexander the Great, to commemorate his victory over Thebans and Athenians in the Battle of Chaeronea in 335 BCE.ย Since Philip II died two years after the construction of this monument started, his son Alexander the Great most likely completed it.
Philippeion – a monument built by the father of Alexander the Great at the sanctuary of Olympia, Greece
This majestic monument was circular-shaped with a diameter of 15.3 meters and had two concentric rings of columns. The outer ring had 18 Ionic style columns, and the inner ring had Corinthian style half-columns. The roof was made of marble with a bronze poppy head. Inside the monument, it housed the statues of Philip II and his family that included his wife, parents, and son Alexander the Great.
Votive Offerings
As the Olympic Games became more popular, the sanctuary of Olympia became very prominent resulting in people from various city-states sending votive offerings to Olympia. The site was adorned with statues in different places. Just like Delphi, Olympia also had treasuries built by various city-states to deposit their votive offerings.
Nike of Paionios
A beautifully sculpted marble statue of Nike stood on a pillar near the Temple of Zeus.ย According to the inscription on the base of this statue,ย it was dedicated by the Messenians and Naupactians to commemorate their victory against the Lacedaemonians (Spartans ?) in the Peloponnesian war.ย The statue was sculpted using Parian marble by Paionois of Mendi around 421 BCE.ย It was sculpted to give an impression that Nike the goddess of victory was triumphantly descending from Mount Olympos.
Nike of Paionios on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
Nike of Paionios on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
The statue of Nike on displayย at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
The statue is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum and was restored from the fragments excavated near the Temple of Zeus.
Hermes of Praxiteles
The statue of Hermes carrying infant Dionysos was sculpted by the famous sculptor Praxiteles. This masterpiece is dated 330 BCE and was a votive offering placed on opisthodomos of the Temple of Hera.
Statue of Hermes of Praxiteles
Statue of Hermes of Praxiteles – Rear View
The statue of Hermes on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
Treasury of the Megarians
Pediment from the Treasury of the Megarians on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
Roman Period
Romans added many new buildings to the sanctuary, including Nymphaion, and continue the tradition of the Olympic Games. During the Roman period, the games were open to all citizens of the Roman Empire.
Nymphaeum (Nymphaion)
Located near the Temple of Hera, Nymphaion (also known as the Exedra of Herodes Atticus) was a magnificent two-story semi-circular building that housed a fountain. It was built in 150 CE by Herodes Atticus, a Greek aristocrat who became a Roman senator, to honor of his wife Regilla. Placed inside the niches on the walls of this building are the statues that included the statues of Roman Emperors Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Pius, and Herodes Atticus and his family members. At each end of the building, there were two circular Naiskos (small temples).
Ruins of Nymphaion (Nymphaeum) in Olympia, Greece
Naiskos at the Nymphaion
Ruins of Nymphaion
This building served as the water reservoir for the sanctuary during the Roman period. An aqueduct brought the water from a spring a few miles away and stored in a semi-circular basin located in front of the building. The water was then distributed to the rest of the sanctuary through pipes.
Marble bull – A votive offering at the Nymphaion
The image shows the marble statue of a bull that was a votive offering at the Nymphaion and is now on displayย at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.
Roman Era Statues
During the Roman era,ย statues of emperors and other important people of the empire were erectedย in Metroon, which was a temple of the mother goddess. The statues were eventually moved to the Temple of Hera for safe keeping. During the excavation, many of these statues were discovered inside the ruins of the Temple of Hera. These statues were restored and put on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum. Here are some of them:
Agrippina Minorย
Statue ofย Agrippina Minor – Emperor Nero’s mother
The statue ofย Agrippina Minor, who was Emperor Nero’s mother,ย was discovered on a wall in the Temple of Hera.
Poppaea Sabina
Statue of Poppaea Sabina – Emperor Nero’s second wife
Poppaea Sabina (30 -65 CE) was the second wife of Emperor Nero. This statue was also discovered on a wall in the Temple of Hera.
Emperor Hadrian
Statue of Emperor Hadrian
The statue of Roman Emperor Hadrian (117 โ 138 CE) was discovered in the Temple of Hera and is now on displayย at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.
As a supporter and admirer ofย Greece, Emperor Hadrian touredย Greeceย in 124 CE and committed vast resources for numerous engineering projects, including aqueducts, and rebuilding temples and monuments throughoutย Greece.
Notice the tunic worn by Hadrian in the statue. His finely carved tunic symbolizes fusion of Greek and Roman cultures and represents his world-view.
At the center of the tunic is Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom and war, standing on top of a she-wolf with two sucklings, and flanked by two figures with wings believed to represent Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Above the wolf and to the right of Athena is an Owl and to the left is a snake standing upright. Goddess Athena represents Greece and the she-wolf suckling the twins, Romulus and Remus, symbolizes Rome as it is based on the legend of the founding of Rome.
Copyright ยฉ 2017 – 2019 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
Located on the slopes of Mount Parnassos in central Greece, Delphi was best known for its oracle in ancient times. Ancient Greeks treated this site with great reverence as it overlooks a spectacular and awe-inspiring landscape. Delphi was unique in that it was not a city-state but a religious center that was administered by an alliance of Greek city-states. Although Greek city-states fought among themselves, they were united in developing this site.
Fascinated by the mystery of the oracle, people have been flocking to Delphi from all over the world for more than a century. The archaeological site of Delphi, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, provides a glimpse of its past glory. The ruins at this site include the Temple of Apollo, Treasury of the Athenians, a theater and stadium.
Location
History
In ancient times, Greeks considered Delphi as the navel of the earth. According to Greek mythology, Zeus wanted to find the navel of the earth, which in other words the center of the earth. To accomplish this task he sent two eagles, one to the east and the other to the west. The eagles crossed their paths at Delphi making it the navel of the earth. The name Delphi is derived from delphys which in archaic Greek means womb and refers to the womb of the Mother Earth.
The earliest known human settlement in Delphi dates back to the Neolithic period (around 4000 BCE). Later, the Mycenaean civilization established a settlement here in the 2nd millennium BCE.
Delphi was initially famous for the worship of goddess Gaia (Mother Earth), and a temple existed for this goddess at the site of the Temple of Apollo.
Later the cult of Apollo took roots in Delphi replacing the worship of Gaia. This cult grew out of a legend based on Apollo’s slaying of an evil python who was a son of Gaia and was roaming Mount Parnassos creating havoc.
The building of the Sanctuary of Apollo started in the 8th century BCE and reached its peak in the 6th century BCE when it became the most important religious center for Greeks.
Delphi was not a city-state, but a protectorate of Amphictyonia (Amphictyonic League), an alliance of Greek tribes from Sterea (south-central Greece) and Thessaly, which controlled it from 7th to 4th century BCE. The Delphi area was considered autonomous. The Amphictyonic League administered it and chose the priests of the Temple of Apollo.
However, in 356 BCE, an alliance of Phocians, Athenians, and Spartans took control of this sanctuary. Their control was short-lived because King Philip of Macedonia defeated them and handed over the site back to the Amphictyonia alliance. He interfered again in 338 BCE and took control of the site himself.
Roman Period
The Roman Empire took control of this site in 191 BCE, but let the religious ceremonies, including the practice of foretelling by the oracle, to continue. Many high-ranking Romans regularly consulted the oracle. Emperor Hadrian was believed to have visited Delphi and consulted the oracle. However, the Roman general Sulla plundered this site in 86 BCE to finance his wars in Greece.
Decline
Although the practice of foretelling by the oracle continued for a couple of centuries, it gradually started losing its prominence. The final death knell came from the Christians who wanted to end the pagan practices. In 394 BCE, Byzantine Emperor Theodosius issued an edict abolishing the oracle and other pagan practices at Delphi and other sanctuaries all over the Roman empire. Even after the oracle was abolished, Delphi continued to thrive for another three centuries. As Christianity became prominent, Christians started flourishing in this area, and there was even a Basilica. Delphi was eventually abandoned in 6th or 7th century CE.
Pythian Games
Starting 586 BCE, Delphi hosted the Pythian Games every four years to celebrate Apollo’s victory, and it was second only to the Olympic Games in importance. The winner of a game received the laurels picked from the Temple of Apollo. They continued until 424 CE.
Sanctuary of Apollo
The Sanctuary of Apollo includes the Temple of Apollo and the Sacred Way which is the path from the entrance to this temple. Above the temple, there is a theater and a stadium where the Pythian Games were held.
Sacred Way
The Sacred Way was the path leading from the entrance to the Sanctuary of the Apollo to the Temple of the Apollo. This sanctuary was visited by the people from various Greek states to ask questions of the oracle.
Because of the slope, the path was zigzag with a few stairs in some places but was well paved. The Greek city-states competed against each other by building structures on either side of the path. Many city-states had treasury buildings which were used as the place to deposit their votive offerings by their citizens.
Roman Agora
A typical ancient Greek city-state had an agora, which means meeting place in Greek. It is equivalent to a modern city-square or plaza. Because the people gathered in the agora, merchants set up shops in and around the agora to sell a variety of goods and services. Because of these shops, the agora became synonymous with the marketplace.
Once the Romans took control of Delphi, they remodeled the existing agora sometime in the 4th century CE. It became known as the Roman Agora because the remodeled buildings appeared more Roman than Greek.
The Roman Agora is the first stop on the Sacred Way to the Temple of Apollo. Just like any other temples scenes around the world, this is where the pilgrims bought the votive offerings and proceeded to the temple.
Roman Agora at Delphi
Temple of Apollo
The Temple of Apollo was the most important and dominant structure in the Sanctuary of Apollo. According to a Greek myth, this is where the Omphalos (navel of the earth) stone was found.
The Temple of Apollo was built and remodeled many times at the same site. The first temple was built by the legendary architects Trofonios and Agamedes in the 7th century and was destroyed by a fire in 548 BCE. It was replaced in 525 BCE by a bigger temple, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 373 BCE. The third temple was built with almost the same plan and dimensions of its predecessor in 320 BCE.
The Temple of ApolloSurviving columns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi
Oracle of Delphi
Although the oracle existed during the Gaia times, it became prominent after the cult of Apollo gained importance. The Oracle of Apollo was a priestess called Pythia whom the people believed was a mouthpiece of Apollo.
The Oracle sat on a tripod in the inner sanctum of the temple inhaling vapors emanating from a fissure in front of her. According to a myth, the body of the python slain by Apollo fell into this fissure and vapors emanated from the decomposing body of the python. Intoxicated by vapors, Sybil the first oracle went into a trance and answered questions and foretold the future.
Young women from the nearby villages were chosen as priestesses of the temple and one of them would officiate as the oracle. Answers given by the oracle were vague and cryptic, but the priests at the Temple of Apollo interpreted them for the people.
Architecture
The Temple of Apollo is Doric in style with 6 columns on the front and 15 on the sides.
The east pediment depicted a scene when Apollo when he arrived with sister Artemis and mother Leto. The west pediment depicted Gigantomachy, which isthe story of the giant’s battle with Olympian gods. The sculptures on the pediment used marble from the island of Paros, and Athenian sculptors Praxias and Androsthenes helped to build them. Only a few fragments of the pediments survived and are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.
The seat of the oracle was located inside the cella (inner chamber) called the adyton which had the statue of Apollo and Omphalos. Like many other Greek temples, an eternal flame burned in the hestia (hearth) located at the rear of the cella.
The walls of the pronaos (vestibule of the temple) had inscriptions of saying attributed to the seven Greek sages. These sayings include “know thyself” and “everything in moderation. “
Omphalos
In the ancient Greek language, the word Omphalos means “naval.” The Omphalos of Delphi refers to a conical-shaped stone that represents the navel of the earth.
According to Pausanias, a Greek historian who visited Delphi in the second century CE, a copy of Omphalos draped with wreaths was kept near the seat of oracle in the inner chamber (adyton) of the Temple of Apollo. Ancient Greeks believed that this is where Apollo killed the evil python, and Omphalos was used to communicate directly with the gods.
Experts believe that many copies of Omphalos existed in the Sanctuary of Apollo. The archaeological site of Delphi has one of the stones, and another one is in the Delphi Archaeological Museum. See the images below.
Omphalos stone at the Delphi archaeological siteOmphalos of Delphi on display atย the Delphi Archaeological Museum.
Omphalos
Dancers of Delphi
Displayed at the Delphi Archaeological Museum, the Dancers of Delphi is a sculpture with three female figures, fragments of which were found on the terraces in the east and northeast part of the Temple of Apollo in 1894. See the images below.
The Dancers of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological MuseumThe Dancers of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
The Dancers of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Experts believe that this sculpture was located in the adyton (inner sanctum) of the Temple of Apollo and a part of the column that was holding the Omphalos stone. It was likely that there was a tripod-like structure – probably made of bronze – between the heads of the dances and the Omphalos stone.
Halos
A circular space near the Temple of Apollo.
Altar of Chiots
Built by the people of Aegean island of Chios in the 4th century BCE, the Alter of Chiots became the main altar of the 3rd temple that was rebuilt in 330 BCE.
This monument is located in front of the Temple of Apollo and there is a large open space between the altar and the temple. An ancient staircase leads to this altar and to the temple from the Sacred Way. The altar was made of black marble except for the base and cornice which were made of white marble.
Base of the Altar of Chiots
Polygonal Wall
The Polygonal Wall was built as a retaining wall to support the terrace that houses the temple platform. This was introduced during the construction of the second temple in 548 BCE.
Some stones on the Polygonal Wall have detailed inscriptions that were carved sometime in 2nd or 3rd century BCE. These inscriptions mostly mention the emancipation of slaves.
Polygonal Wall
The polygonal walls get their name from the polygonal shapes of the stones that were used to build the wall. Notice that the Polygonal Wall shown in the image has some curved stones in addition to the polygonal stones.
The polygonal walls are considered an engineering marvel because of the way in which they were built. The walls did not make use of mortar or cement because the stones with irregular shapes and sizes that made up the wall fit perfectly.
It appears as though the stones were precisely cut and polished using sophisticated machinery. However, there is no evidence to suggest that such machinery or tools existed in ancient times. In all likelihood, engineers in those days must have devised some ingenious techniques to build such walls using primitive tools.
One of the main advantages of polygonal walls is that they withstand earthquakes very well, as evidenced in Delphi, which suffered numerous earthquakes for the past 2500 years. The polygonal walls in Delphi have some similarities with the polygonal walls used in the structures built by the Incas in Cusco and Saksaywaman. These places are also located on the severe earthquake zone, and the Inca structures seem to have withstood earthquakes very well.
Stoa of the Athenians
The Stoa of the Athenians was built against the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo. This structure was used to house the trophies won by the Athenians in their naval victories. The faรงade originally had seven columns, only four of them have survived. The roof was believed to be wooden. It was built between 510 and 470 BCE.
Stoa of the Athenians
Kings of Argos Monument
The city-state of Argos, which had many kings before it became a democracy, built this monument to house the statues of its kings. It is a semi-circular structure with niches to hold bronze statues. While the plan was to house twenty statues, the city-state of Argos was able to erect only ten statues.
King of Argos monument
Silver Bull
The image shows the statue of a bull reconstructed from the fragments of silver sheets excavated at the Sanctuary of Apollo. It is on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. The base of the statue is located somewhere near the entrance of the Sacred Way.
Silver Bull on display at the Delphi Museum
Naxian Sphinx
Located below the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo, Naxian Sphinx was a votive offering at the Temple of Apollo by the people of Naxos, an island belonging to the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea. It is a statue of the mythical creature that has the head of a woman, the body of a lion and wings of an eagle. In ancient times, sphinxes were considered guardians of tombs and sanctuaries. The statue was constructed in 560 BCE and was made from Naxian marble. It stood on a free-standing tall Ionic column that was 12 meters high and was an imposing sight at that time.
Naxian Sphinx on display at the Delphi Archaeological MuseumNaxian Sphinx on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Marble statue of Naxian Sphinx on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Pillar of King Prusias II of Bithynia
Pillar of King Prusias II of Bithynia
Situated on the northeast entrance of the Temple of Apollo, this monument was erected to honor King Prusias II of Bithynia in 182 BCE. The pillar is 9.7 meters high and the statue of the king on the horseback once stood on top of it.
This monument was an offering to the Temple of Apollo by Bithynia, a kingdom of Thracian tribe Bithyni, and located in the northwest region of Asia Minor (currently in the Anatolia province of Turkey).
Treasuries
Along the Sacred Way, there were many treasuries built by the individual city-states to help their citizens store the votive offerings. They included the Treasury of the Athenians, Treasury of the Siphnians, Treasury of the Boeotians and Treasury of the Sikyonians.
Treasury of the Athenians
The Treasury of the Athenians was built by the city-state of Athens to commemorate the Battle of Marathon in 496 BCE. The purpose of this building was to house the offerings brought by Athenians to be offered the Temple of Apollo.
Treasury of the Athenians
The site was excavated by the French School of Athens, which reconstructed the monument at the site in 1903-1906. The architectural style of this building is the Doric Order. The metopes on this building are replicas, and the originals (mostly fragments) are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.
Note: A metophe is a rectangular architectural element that is placed in the space between two sets of vertical tablets on a Doric frieze.
Treasury of the Siphnians
The Treasury of the Siphnians was built around 525 BCE by the city-state of Siphnos, which is also an island in the Aegean Sea. The people of Siphnos accumulated wealth by mining silver and gold. They used tithe of the profits from mining to build this monument.
Just like the Treasure of the Athenians, the purpose of this building was to house the votive offerings brought by the people of Siphnos.
Treasury of the Siphnians
Siphnians Treasury caryatid on display at the Delphi Museum
The architecture style of this building is the Ionic Order. It had rich decorations including caryatids (female figures) as supporting columns of structures. See the image below. It had pediments on all the four sides, each of which is adorned with beautiful sculptures depicting stories from Greek mythology.
Votive Offerings
Twins of Argos
The two life-sized marble statues of two brothers – Cleobis and Biton – were votive offerings at the Sanctuary of Apollo by the city of Argos which is located in the Argolis region of Peloponnese.
Both the statues and one of the bases with inscription were found near the Treasury of the Athenians in 1893. They were dated approximately 580 BCE.
Statues of Argos twins on display at the Delphi Archaeological MuseumArgos twins on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Statues of Argos Twins on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Charioteer of Delphi
Bronze statue of a charioteer on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
The Charioteer of Delphi is a life-size bronze statue of a young man on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. This masterpiece was part of a bigger sculpture containing a chariot, fours horses and two charioteers (one of them is this statue) and was found intact in the Sanctuary of Apollo in 1896.
This was a votive offering to the Temple of Apollo in 474 BCE to honor the victory in a chariot race in the Pythian Games.
Theater
The theater is located above the Temple of Apollo and is well-preserved. It was built sometime in the 4th century BCE and underwent remodeling several times.
Delphi Theater
During the Pythian Games, this theater hosted music competitions, and during important festivals, it hosted plays and other theatrical performances.
Known as the birthplace of democracy, Athens is a city with a long and glorious past, which started as early as 1400 BCE as an important center of the Mycenaean civilization. Athens is where western civilization took roots.ย At its heyday, Athens was the leader of the Greek city-states. It was home to many great philosophers, including Socrates (469 – 399 BCE), Aristotle (427 – 347 BCE) and Plato (384 – 322 BCE). In addition to philosophy,ย Athens was at the forefront of arts, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.
After Athens declined as the powerhouse of the Greek city-states, it was ruled by Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. Many iconic structures of Greece that include Parthenon are in Athens. The ruins of ancient monuments that are spread all over the city speak of different eras in Athens’ history.
Location
Athens is also called Athina in Greek. It is located on mainland Greece.
Modern Athens
Athens is the capital of Greece and a cosmopolitan city. It also has one of the biggest ports in Europe. The port of Piraeus is part of greater Athens and handles large passenger traffic.
Syntagma Square
This is the central square of Athens where the Greek Parliament building is located.
Parliament Building
The current Greek Parliament building was built in 1836 as the royal palace of King Otto I, the first king of modern Greece.
Greek Parliament building at Athens
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is in the front of the Greek Parliament building and guarded by the members of the presidential guards.
Changing Guard at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
National Gardens
The Greek National Gardens is located behind the Parliament building.
Monument to Lord Byron at the National Gardens, Athens
Trees at the National Gardens
Athens Olympics Games
The modern Olympic Games are modeled after the ancientย Olympic Games that were held in Olympia for many centuries in ancient times.ย The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens on April 6, 1896, and held again there in 2004.
Panathenaic Stadium
Theย Panathenaic Stadium is one of the main attractions of Athens. The original stadium at this site was built in 330 BCE and was remodeled in 144 CE by Herodus Atticus, an Athenian aristocrat who rose became a Roman Senator. This site was excavated in 1869 and a new stadium was reconstructed at the same site.
Athens: Panathenaic Stadium
It was used for the opening and closing ceremonies of the first modern Olympic Games. This stadium was remodeled for the 2004 Olympic Games. This venue was the finishing point for the men’s and women’s Marathon races. In addition, the archery competition was held there.ย It currently being used for a variety of purposes, including as a venue to transfer the Olympic flame to the host nation.
Views of the City
The city of Athens contains many hills, including Acropolis, Philopappu and Lycabettus hills. The views of Athens with these hills are spectacular.
A view of Athens showing Mount Lycabettus
A view of Athens showing the Philopappos (Philopappu) monument
A view of Athens showing the Hadrian’s Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus
Views of Athens
Ancient Athens
Acropolis
The Acropolis is a citadel located on a flat-topped rock in the city of Athens. It is about 500 ft above sea level and has a dominating presence in Athens.
Acropolis overlooking the city of Athens
The Acropolis was inhabited since the Neolithic period (6th century BCE). It is believed that it had a Mycenaean Megaroon when Athens was part of the Mycenaean Empire.
The Acropolis has ruins of many iconic structures of Greece, including the Parthenon.
Parthenon
The Parthenon is known all over the world as an iconic symbol of ancient Greece and western civilization. It is also regarded as a symbol of democracy.
Located at the center of Acropolis, the Parthenon was built as a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin) by Pericles. ย It replaced the existing temple of Athena, which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE. The construction of Parthenon began in 447 BCE and ended in 438 BCE. A gold and ivory statue of Athena stood in the cella (inner sanctum) of the temple. In addition to being a temple of goddess Athena, it also served as a treasury.
Parthenon – A monument located on Athens Acropolis
Destruction
Over the years, the Parthenon was plundered, destroyed and converted many times. The Germanic tribes destroyed inner a part of Parthenon in the 3rd or 4th century. When Athens came under the Roman Empire, the Parthenon was converted to a church in the 6th century by early Christians and was called the church of Holy Wisdom. In the 11th century, it was dedicated to the Virgin Mary. ย After the Frankish crusaders took over Athens, it became the Church of Notre Dame in 1204. When the Ottoman Empire took control of Athens in 1458, the Parthenon was converted to a mosque and a minaret was added to it.
A large part of Parthenon was destroyed during the bombardment of Athens by Venetians in 1687. During the war with the Republic of Venice, the Ottoman Empire stored ammunition inside the Parthenon. Aย cannonball fired by the Venetian troops led by the Venetian general Francisco Morosini hit the Parthenon directly igniting the stored ammunition and resulting in the destruction of precious sculptures and part of the structure.
One of the biggest damage to the Parthenon was caused by then English Ambassador to Constantinople, Thomas Bruce (7th Earl of Elgin), who in 1801- 1802 bribed Turkish authorities and sawed away many priceless sculptures and transported them to England. Today most of them are on display in the British Museum in London.
The Parthenon is now a UNESCO World Heritage site and is currently being restored by the Greek Government.
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
This theater was built in 161 CE on the southwest slopes of Acropolis by Herodes Atticus to honor his wife Aspacia Anna Regilla.ย Herodes Atticus was an aristocratic Athenian who became a Roman Senator. He was responsible for constructing many buildings in Greece and Athens in particular.
The Odeon was used as a music theater and could seat about 5000 people. It was destroyed by a Germanic tribe in 267 CE.
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
The facade of Odeon of Herodes Atticus
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
Erechtheion
Built on a slope on the north side of Acropolis in Athens, Greece, the Erechtheion, a temple built by the famous sculptor Phidias and dedicated to the legendary King Erichthonius, is second only to the Parthenon in importance. Its complex ground plan has porches on the east, north and south sides. The east side porch is dedicated to Athena and the west side to Poseidon. The construction of the original monument began in 420 BCE and ended in 406 BCE. After Roman General Sulla sacked it 80 BCE, it underwent many modifications in the subsequent years.
Porch of the Caryatids
Erechtheion
The image shows the south side porch of the Erechtheion. As you can see from the image, the porch has six caryatids, which are replicas. The original caryatids were moved to the museums for safekeeping. Five of them are now in the new Acropolis Museum in Athens, and the sixth, which was taken by Lord Elgin in the 19th century to decorate his mansion in Scotland, is in the British Museum in London.
Original Caryatid on display at the Acropolis Museum
Note: A Caryatid in Greek architecture is a female sculpture that serves as a column that helps to support a structure.
A recent study suggests that this building was referred to as the Parthenon in ancient texts, instead of the structure we now identify as the Parthenon, because it fits the name and description in those texts. Note that Parthenon means a room for virgins in Greek.
Theatre of Dionysusย
As the name suggests, this theater was dedicated to Dionysus, the god of plays and wine. ย Situated on the foothills of Acropolis, this theater in its current form could seat as many as 17,000 people. The theater was in existence since 6th century BCE but underwent many modifications. It is believed to be the birthplace of Greek tragedy.
Theatre of Dionysus
Arch of Hadrian (Hadrian’s Gate)
This is a Roman-era monument honoring Roman Emperor Hadrian.
Hadrian’s Arch
Temple of Olympian Zeus
The Temple of Olympian Zeus is located near the Arch of Hadrian, and as the name suggests it is dedicated to Olympian Zeus. The construction of this temple started in the 6th century BCE but completed much later by the Roman Emperor Hadrian.
The original temple when completed had 104 columns, out which only 16 survived.
Temple of Olympian Zeus
Hadrian’s Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus
Ancient Agora
In ancient Greek cities, the Agora was like the public square where people assembled to hear announcements, engage in political discourses, watch theatrical performances and athletic contests, and participate in religious activities. ย Because the Agora was a meeting place of people, it also served as a market place.
The Ancient Agora of Athens was the center of Athenian democracy where the political power was exercised. Starting from the 6th century BCE, the Agora gradually expanded to contain numerous public buildings, fountains, temples, and statues and attained the final form in the 2nd century CE. The image below shows the map of theย Ancient Agora when it reached this form.
Ancient Agora and surroundings
Temple of Hephaestus (Hฤphaistos)
Hephaestus is the Greek god of fire and metal works and was worshiped by craftsmen and artisans in ancient Greece, especially in Athens.
The Temple of ย Hephaestus is one of the well-preserved buildings in Athens. It has two facades, one facing east and the other west. The east facade faces the Agora.
Temple of Hephaestus
Temple of Hephaestus – Interior
Temple of Hephaestus
The temple was converted to the church of St George in the 7th century. ย This is also the place where the first of king of modern Greece, King Otto, was officially received.
Byzantine Period
As Athens became Christian, the pagan traditions of Athens disappeared.ย Ancient buildings such as Parthenon were converted to churches and many new churches were built.ย During this period Athens lost its character,ย and the grandeur and splendor with which Greeks built their buildings were gone forever.
Church of the Holy Apostles
This church was built in the 11th century but was altered many times. It was restored to the current form in 1956.
Located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Crete is the biggest island in the Aegean Sea. This is where the Minoan civilization, a mysterious culture that was well ahead of their time, thrived more than 4000 years ago.
Crete has many archaeological sites belonging to the Minoan civilization, including palaces at the following four sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Zakros. The Palace at Knossos is the most famous among them.
Knossos
Knossos is believed to the oldest city in Europe and is the place of the legendary King Minos.
Discovery and Excavation
Although Minos Kalokairinos, a merchant of Heraklion, discovered Knossos in 1878, the credit for bringing world’s attention to Knossos goes to Arthur Evans, a British archaeologist who started excavation in 1900 and continued until 1934 with some interruptions during World War I. He and his team retrieved a large number of artifacts and restored and reconstructed parts of the palace. Some of the reconstruction was the creation of Arthur Evans imagination. Based on his findings, he published a four-volume book work titled The Palace of Minos at Knossos.
The team led by Arthur Evans also discovered tablets inscribed two different scripts, which he named them as Linear A and Linear B. While they appear similar, the contents of the inscriptions belong to two entirely different languages. The language of Linear A is Minoan, which is probably close to Sanskrit, whereas the language of Linear B is Mycenaean, which is close to Greek.
Because of its closeness to Greek, Linear B inscriptions have been mostly deciphered. The Linear B tablets were inscribed later than Linear A tablets. It appears Linear B descended from Linear A and the Mycenaean used it even after the collapse of the Minoan civilization.
Palace at Knossos
The Knossos Palace was a massive complex of structures that included royal quarters, religious halls and storage rooms. There were two versions of palaces at Knossos. An earthquake destroyed the first palace (1900 – 1700 BCE ). A new palace (1700 – 1450 BCE) was then built at the same site.
Knossos had maze-like structures with some buildings having multiple floors. See the images below.
Ruins of Palace at Knossos A multi-storied structure at the Knossos Palace
Ruins of the Palace of Knossos
The entire complex was designed with a very sophisticated water management system to supply fresh water to the residential quarters and an underground sewage system to flush out the waste. The water was available even on the upper floors of multi-storied buildings.
Horns of Consecration
As mentioned earlier, the bull played an important role in Minoan religion and everyday life. Many buildings in the Knossos site had the bull horns like structures on the top. Arthur Evans called them “Horns of Consecration.”
The image below shows the reconstructed structure of bull horns.
Horns of Consecration representing sacred bull horns
The Horns of Consecration symbols were found on Minoan seals as well.
Hall with Columns and Frescoes
The ruins have many reconstructed halls with wooden columns painted black and red as shown in the image below. Arthur Evans used archaeological facts and some imagination to reconstruct the hall, and he did so by using modern materials.
Unlike the columns in Greek buildings elsewhere, the Minoan columns are wider at the top and narrower at the bottom.
Reconstructed hall with columns and frescoes
Mounted on the walls are the copies of the frescoes that were reconstructed by using their fragments found at this site.
Throne Room
The Throne Room is one of the important structures in the Knossos Palace. The purpose of this room is still being debated.
Built into the wall in the middle of the room is a rock throne flanked on each side by the frescoes of Griffins, which are the mythological creatures with the head and wings of an eagle and body and tail of a lion.
Griffin Fresco in the Throne Room at Knossos
A circular tub called lustral basin In front of the throne, which was likely used for ceremonial purposes. Built into the wall next to the throne are the benches that can accommodate about 16 people.
Throne room with frescoes
King’s Megaron
Believing that this place was King Minos’s apartment, Arthur Evans named it King’s Megaron. Using some imagination, he reconstructed it using modern materials. He also placed a reconstructed wooden throne inside this structure.
This structure is also called the Hall of the Double Axes because of the double-axe symbols found engraved on the walls of a well inside this structure.
King’s Megaron and StoaReconstructed wooden throne
Kings’ Megaron
Queen’s Megaron
The Queen’s Megaron was assumed by Arthur Evans to be the queen’s apartment, but there is no archaeological evidence to prove it. The suite has a hall with the famous Dolphins fresco, bathroom, toilet, and small well.
Queen’s Megaron
Bastion of the Bull
Located near the northern entrance, Bastion of the Bull is yet another structure reconstructed by Arthur Evans by using his imagination. As you can see in the image below, the famous Charging Bull fresco is engraved on its wall.
Bastion of the Bull
Theater Area
This where the visitors to the palace were received. The Theater Area is also connected to a road called Royal Road.
Theater area
Arts
The Minoan art includes frescoes, pottery and bronze sculptures.
Frescoes
Beautiful and colorful frescoes decorated the walls of the Minoan palaces and houses. They followed a certain color code, perhaps borrowed from the Egyptians. Some of the codes are, red for men, white for women, yellow for gold.
The images below show the replicated frescoes displayed at the ruins of the Knossos Palace.
Ladies in Blue fresco on display at the Knossos Palace in Crete, GreeceDolphins FrescoGriffin Fresco in the Throne Room at Knossos
Frescoes on display at the Palace of Knossos
Prince of the Lilies Fresco
This is one of the well-known Minoan fresco and believed to represent the Priest-King of Knossos. It was reconstructed from the fragments retrieved from the archaeological site. ย The duplicate fresco is on display at the Corridor of Procession in the Knossos Palace.
Prince of the Lilies fresco
Bull Leaping Fresco
The Bull-Leaping fresco depicts a dangerous game of leaping over a bull, and it was played by both men and women. In the image shown below, the person who leaps over the bull is believed to be a man and the persons standing in the front and back of the bull are believed to be women. The gender of the players is inferred from the color code used by the painters, i.e., light color for women and brown for men.
It appears that the game of Bull Leaping was important to the Minoan culture, and the game could have been ceremonial.
Fresco depicting the game of Bull Leaping
Pottery
Although smaller pots were discovered in the Minoan archaeological sites, Minoans were known for their giant jars called Pithoi.
Pithoi Jars
Pithoi jars were likely used as storage devices for liquids, grains, dried fish and olives. Several hundreds of them were found in the ruins at Knossos. Because of their size, they were typically placed on the ground floors. Pithois are differentiated based on their size, the number of handles and decoration on the outer surface.
Arthur Evans found a number of giant Pithoi jars in one place, which he named it “The Magazines of Giant Pithoi.” See the images below.
Pithoi jars found at the ruins of Palace at Knossos in CreteThe Magazines of the Great Pithoi
