The blue waters of the Aegean Sea are home to a large number of islands belonging to Greece. ย Only 227 among them are inhabited. Each inhabited island has its own legend, history, and culture.ย Crete, which was home to the Minoan civilization, is the largest and Santorini is the most popular.
Mykonos
The island of Mykonos belongs to the Cyclades group of the islands in the Aegean Sea. According to a legend, the island was formed by the bodies of giants petrified after Hercules killed them. The island was named after the grandson of Apollo. ย Chora is the main city and also a major tourist attraction. Windmills dot the island and many of them are in Chora.
Mykonos water front and Little Venice
Windmills of Mykonos
Island of Mykonos
The beautiful coastline of Mykonos makes it worthwhile to watch the sunset.
Sunset at Mykonos
Because of its spectacular landscape, the moonlit night sky at Mykonos is beautiful and serene.
Moonlight at Mykonos
Santorini
The island of Santorini is also part of the Cyclades and one of the most visited places in Greece.ย What we see now is the remnants of Thera, a bigger island that was the center of a massive volcanic eruption happened 3600 years ago during the height of Minoan civilization.
Although Fira is the biggest town in Santorini, the Village of Oia is the most scenic and a photographer’s paradise.
As you can see from the map below, ย the outline formed by the archipelago of Santorini has the shape of a caldera.
Oia Village
Located on the northwest corner of Santorini, the Village of Oia is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world. ย It is about 500 feet above sea level.
The Oia village is famous for the panoramic view of the steep cliffs that were part of the volcanic caldera which appears to rise from the sea. As you can see from the images below, most of the buildings in this village are built on the slopes of the caldera and are painted with white and some of them have blue domes.
Scenic Oia village of Santorini
Castle of Agios Nikolaos
Spinning Wheel of Oia Village
Scenic Oia village
Scenic Oia village
Scenic Oia Village
Scenic views from Oia Village
The Oia village is also known for the traditional cave houses, which were built on the slopes of the caldera over the past few centuries by the crews of the ships and poor families who could not afford houses on the top of the cliff.
They are typically single room residential units built by carving out the earth from on the slopes. Because of the igneous rocks that made up the caldera, these houses were warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer. Now some of these houses are converted into vacation homes for tourists.
Church of Panagia of Platasani
Sunset
The sunset at the Oia Village is spectacular and a photographer’s dream.
Sunset at Oia Village, Santorini
Sunset at Oia Village, Santorini
Sunset as seen from the Oia Village
Wine
Santorini is also famous for its wine called Vin Santo and is well -known to wine lovers all over the world. The grape vines in Santorini are coiled like a basket and kept low on the ground in order to avoid the strong winds coming from the ocean.
The wine-making tradition in Santorini dates back thousands of years. Grapes grown on the soil contain volcanic ash and the Mediterranean climate gives the wine a distinct taste.
Patmos
Known in the Christian world as the island of Apocalypse, Patmos is where St. John the Evangelist spent later part of his life and wrote the Book of Revelations living in a cave.
Being a Disciple of Jesus and the one who wrote one of the four gospels, ย St ย John said to have traveled to Ephesus and preached the gospel there in the Great Theater. ย Because of his evangelization activities, ย the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Domitian (81-96 CE) banished him to Patmos.
After the death of Domitian, St. John was released from exile and reported to have returned to Ephesus. Unlike the other Apostles of Jesus who were all martyred, St. John died a natural death at the ripe age of 92. It is believed that he died in Ephesus.
Monastery of St. John the Theologian
The cave where St. John lived and wrote The Book of Revelations is a big tourist attraction. The Monastery of St. John the Theologian was built in the 11th century around this cave.
Frescoes on the walls of Monastery of St. John the Theologian
Monastery of St. John the Theologian – A finely-carved wooden door
Monastery of St. John the Theologian
Monastery of St. John the Theologian
Scenic View
Just like the other islands in the Aegean Sea, Patmos is very scenic and a popular tourist attraction.
Founded by the notorious Spanish Conquistador Francisco Pizarro in 1535, Lima is the capital of Republic of Peru. ย It is located on the Pacific coast and is the largest city in Peru.Lima is a melting pot of many cultures, including Spanish, indigenous and Asian cultures, ย and it is reflected in its food as well. It is known as the Gastronomical Capital of the Americas.
Founded by the notorious Spanish Conquistador Francisco Pizarro in 1535, Lima is the capital of Republic of Peru. ย It is located on the Pacific coast and is the largest city in Peru.
Lima is a melting pot of many cultures, including Spanish, indigenous and Asian cultures, ย and it is reflected in its food as well. It is known as the Gastronomical Capital of the Americas.
Location
Miraflores District
The Miraflores district is an affluent suburb of Lima with a big shopping center. With its beaches, parks, and upscale restaurants and hotels, it is very popular with tourists.
Larcomar Shopping Center in Lima, Peru
Parque del Amor
Located in the Miraflores district is El Parque del Amor (Lover’s Park), a beautiful park dedicated to lovers and a great tourist attraction. At the center of this park overlooking the Pacific coast is El Beso,ย a famous statue carved by the world-renowned sculptor Victor Delfin of Peru.
El Beso (The Kiss) in El Parque del Amor (Lover’s Park)
Costa Verde
Elย Circuito de Playas de la Costa Verde (The Costa Verde Beaches Circuit),ย commonly known as Costaย Verde is a road that runs through the Miraflores district along the Pacific coastline and connects many districts in the Lima region.
Costa Verde in Lima, Peru
Costa Verde has undergone many improvements after it was built in the sixties as an expressway. There are many piers along the way on the side of the sea making it a big tourist attraction.
Plaza Mayor
The Plaza Mayor (also known as Plaza de Armas) is the central square of Lima, the capital city of Peru. It is a sprawling complex of many Spanish colonial structures that include the Government Palace, Cathedral of Lima, Archbishop’s Palace, and Municipal Palace.
Plaza Mayor of Lima, Peru
Cathedral of Lima
The Cathedral of Lima is a Basilica dedicated to St. John the Apostle and Evangelist. The construction began in 1535 with Francisco Pizarro, the infamous Spanish Conquistador, laying the foundation stone. After undergoing many reconstructions, the building we see today was completed in 1622.
Cathedral of Lima in Lima, Peru
Monastery of San Francisco
Built in 1674, this impressive structure is located near the Plaza Mayor.ย Although it has a church and library, this monastery is famous for its catacombs containing skulls and bones of more than 25,000 bodies. The catacombs, which are situated under the church,ย served as a cemetery until 1808.
Monastery of San Fransisco in Lima, Peru
This building is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Museo Larco
The Larco Museum houses artifacts belonging to numerous cultures that flourished in and around Peru in the pre-Columbian era.ย See Inca and Pre-Inca Civilizations.
Moche warrior pot on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Textile from the Paracas culture on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Funerary clothes from the Labrayenque culture on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Quipu – Inca recording device on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Quipu – Inca recording device on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Copyright ยฉ 2017- 2019 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
Built at an elevation of 8000 feet on a mountain peak, the citadel at Machu Picchu is one of the seven wonders of the modern world. ย No visit to Peru is complete without a trip to Machu Picchu, which lies in the Sacred Valley of theย Incas in the Cuzco region. Founded by the great Inca emperor Pachacuti around 1450 CE and abandoned in 100 years later, Machu Picchu is one of the few sites the Spanish never discovered and therefore was left intact without the plunder and destruction by the Spanish Conquistadors. It provides a glimpse into the great Inca civilization that prospered around the Andes mountains before the Spanish conquest.
Built at an elevation of 8000 feet on a mountain peak, the citadel at Machu Picchu is one of the seven wonders of the modern world. ย No visit to Peru is complete without a trip to Machu Picchu, which lies in the Sacred Valley of theย Incas in the Cuzco region. Founded by the great Inca emperor Pachacuti around 1450 CE and abandoned in 100 years later, Machu Picchu is one of the few sites the Spanish never discovered and therefore was left intact without the plunder and destruction by the Spanish Conquistadors. It provides a glimpse into the great Inca civilization that prospered around the Andes mountains before the Spanish conquest.
Discovery
Machu Picchu – which means “old peak” in Quechua – was discovered in 1912 by Hiram Bingham, an American explorer from Yale University. He was looking for Vilcabamba, the lost city of the Incas, and believed until his deathย Machu Picchu was the lost city of the Incas.
Hiram Bingham plaque
Once discovered, it was excavated and restored to its present form. The site was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983. The site has lately become unstable, and the Government of Peru has been restricting the number of visitors to this site.
Location
Machu Picchu is located about 50 miles north-east of the Incaย capital Cuzco. The nearest town is Aguas Calientes, which is in the valley below the Machu Picchu site. Aguas Calientes is also known as Machu Picchu Pueblo.
Statue of Pachacuti at Aguas Calientes welcoming to Machu Picchu
Town of Aguas Calientes in the valley below the Machu Picchu site
Visiting Machu Picchu
The Machu Picchu site is on a mountain peak. You can visit it by foot using the Inca trail or take the bus to the site from Aguas Calientes.
Train
Peru Rail provides several daily train services from Ollantaytambo to Aguas Calientes. The train ride takes about 1 hour 45 minutes. ย You can thenย take a bus to reach the site. The bus ride takes about 25 minutes. Ollantaytambo is about 50 miles from the city of Cuzco, so if you are staying in Cuzco, you need to take a bus to Ollantaytambo.
History and Purpose
The Incaย emperor Pachacuti Inca Yupanquiย (1438 โ71) was the founder of Machu Picchu and the next emperor Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1472 – 93) continued to expand it.
Nobody is sure why Machu Picchu was built and how it was used. There are many theories, but one thing is certain, women were the majority of the population. Some experts believe it was built to safeguard the Inca civilization from the Spanish Conquistadors. If this was the aim, they certainly succeeded in doing that.
The population of Machu Picchu was thought to have succumbed to the diseases, including dreaded smallpox, which the Spanish brought from Europe. The site appeared abandoned after its population perished. However, the natives knew the existence of the site. When Hiram Bingham arrived at the site, he found a few families living there. Hiram Bingham only rediscovered it for the rest of the world.
Structure
Machu Picchu was a self-contained city in which theย Inca people lived for about 100 years. This city had agricultural terraces (andenes), underground and overground drainage systems, temples, royal tomb, astronomic observatories, and residential quarters for the nobility and common people.
Civil Engineers plaque
Many of the structures we see today in Machu Picchu were restored to make them appear the way they looked in their original form. The workmanship of the restored structures is poor compared to the original structures. The difference in workmanship is striking when you look at the structures that are intact.
The structures that still have the original carving and stone masonry are Sun Temple, Principal Temple, and Inti Watana.
A view of the citadel of Machu Picchu
Agricultural terraces and residential quarters in Machu Picchu, Peru
Views of Machu Picchu
Central Plaza
The Central Plaza is equivalent to the central square of a modern city. This is where the residents of the city gathered for celebrations and other occasions. The view from this place is very scenic as it overlooks the Huayna Picchu peak.
The Sacred Plaza is above the Central Plaza, and both the plazas are connected through steps. Below the Central Plaza, there are the ruins of the prisons and residential quarters of the common people.
Central Plaza at Machu Picchu
Residential quarters at Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu central plaza
Sacred Plaza
The Sacred Plaza contains many religious structures, including Principal Temple, Temple with Three Windows, and the Inti Watana stone placed on a pyramid-like structure. This is where important religious ceremonies were held.
Temples
Temples were an important part of Inca life. ย Even though Sun was the main god, theย Inca built temples for many other gods as well.
Principal Temple
Principal Temple is located on the Sacred Plaza. It has three walls, two lateral and one rear and a total of trapezoidal 17 niches on these walls. Like in other Inca temples, the niches were used to keep the haucas (sacred objects). Above the niches of the rear wall, there are six stone pegs which might have used to hang decoration during festivities.
It is believed that the Inca supreme god Viracocha was worshiped in this temple. ย As in the case of other Inca temples, Principal Temple likely housed royal mummies because the Inca considered them as deities and worshiped them as well.
Machu Picchu: Principal temple
The image above shows the ruins of Principal Temple. Notice the defect on the right side of the rear wall. Experts believe that this defect was caused by settling of the earth that occurred as a result of earthquakes that struck the site after it was built.
Temple of the Three Windows
The three windows in the temple represent the three realms of the Inca religion: Hannan Pacha (upper world or heavens), Kaya Pacha (middle world or earth) and Uku Pacha (underworld or hell).
Machu Picchu: Temple of the three windows
Sun Temple
Built on a natural rock, the Sun Temple is a semi-circular tower with the original Inca stone masonry. Even though there is some resemblance to the Sun Temple at Qorikancha inย Cuzco, the one in Machu Picchu is a lot smaller. Just like in the Qorikancha Temple, there are trapezoidal windows and niches in the Machu Picchu temple.
Under one of the windows of this temple, there is a stone on which the sun rays fall, and the Inca measured the movement of the Sun by tracking the sun rays on the rock. Some experts believe that this rock served as a sacrificial altar on which sacrifices were made during the summer and winter equinoxes and many important religious ceremonies.
Sun temple
Condor Temple
The Andean condor is revered by the indigenous cultures of South America. It played an important role in the Inca culture and religion as it symbolizes the upper world realm, Hanan Pacha.
The Condor Temple was built on a natural rock that is believed to represent the wing of a condor. A beautifully carved condor beak lies in front of this structure. The carved condor beak and the natural rock behind it make up the Condor Temple.
Condor Temple in Machu Picchu, Peru
Carving of condor beak in front of the Condor Temple in Machu Picchu, Peru
The Condor Temple
Inti Watana (Intihuatana)
The Inti Watana stone is one of the enigmatic structures in Machu Picchu. ย Inti Watana (Intihuatana) ย in Quechuaย means “hitching post for the sun.”
While nobody is sure of its actual use, many experts believe that it was used as an astronomic clock or a calendar. It casts the longest shadow on the summer solstice (June 21) and shortest shadow on the winter solstice (December 21).
Many Inca sacred sites had Inti Watana stones and theย Inca people considered them as sacred objects. According to a legend, people used to touch their foreheads to the stone and experience spiritual vision. The Spanish considered this as the pagan worship and systematically destroyed them. Theย Inti Watana stone at Machu Picchu was the only one that was found intact.
Sacred Inti Watana stone
Royal Tomb
The Inca royal tomb is located next to the Sun Temple and contains the ceremonial niches and three steps representing the three realms of the Inca religion: underworld (snake), the middle world (jaguar) and the upper world (condor).
As much as 100 skeletal remains were discovered inside the royal tomb and a vast majority of them belonged to women leading experts to believe that the majority of the Machu Picchu residents were women.
The royal tomb
Astronomic Mirrors
Below the Sun Temple, there are two round structures filled with water. It was believed that the Inca used these for observing the stars. Just like the Mayans, the Incas were keen observers of the sky. They filled them with water and observed the images of the stars in the water.
Astronomic mirrors at Machu Picchu
Sacred Rock
Nobody is certain how the Sacred Rock was used by the Inca. Because it resembles the shape of a guinea pig, some experts believe it represents the guinea pig while others believe it represents the mountains behind it because its shape matches the profile of those mountains.
The sacred rock
Animals
Llamas and alpacas freely roam around the Machu Picchu site.
Alpacas in Machu Picchu
Llamas grazing in Machu Picchu, Peru
Llamas and Alpacas freely roaming in Machu Picchu
Huayna Picchu
When you are in the Machu Picchu site, where ever you go you feel the presence of this beautiful and magnificent peek next to it.
Huayna Picchu
Huayna Picchu is taller than Machu Picchu and just like Machu Picchu, it has many structures, including a temple for the moon goddess, residential quarters, and agricultural terraces.
There is a trail that goes from Machu Picchu toย Huayna Picchu near the Sacred Rock.
Copyright ยฉ 2017 – 2019 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
Located in the Andes mountain range, the Cuzco region of Peru is one of the most spectacular places on our planet. The city of Cuzco is the capital of the Cuzco region and lies at an elevation of 11,200 ft. The Cuzco region also includes the scenic Urubamba Valley, which is known as the Sacred Valley of the Incas.
Location
Cuzco City
The sacred city of Cuzco used to be the capital of the Inca Empire. The Kilke people inhabited the Cuzco region from 900 CE and until Incas arrived in the 13th century. It remained the capital of the Incas until the Spanish defeated the last Inca ruler in 1532 CE.
City of Cusco – Main square
A church in Plaza de Armas in Cuzco, Peru
Cusco City
Qorikancha – Inca Temple of Sun God
Qorikancha, which means a golden compound in Quechua, was a magnificent Inca temple dedicated to the Sun God Inti. It was rebuilt by Pachacuti, a powerful Inca emperor who was also known for rebuilding the city of Cuzco. The walls of the temple were made of finely polished, precisely cut and perfectly fitting stones and were covered with sheets of gold. Qorikancha was also the home for the Inca royal mummies, ย some of which were believed to be the mummies of former Sapa Incas. In the niches, there were golden statues of huacas (sacred objects)and emeralds.
When the Spanish saw Qorikancha, they were awestruck by its beauty and opulence, and yetย they plundered the treasure and destroyed the royal mummies. Because the Qorikancha structure being very strong, they were unable to destroy it entirely. They left remaining part of the temple as is and built the Convent of Santo Domingo on top of the ruins.
Just like the Romans, theย Incasย were excellent engineers. Inca structures with precise stone masonry and fine workmanship were far more superior than the colonial structures. When earthquakes struck the Cuzco region, most of the Spanish buildings collapsed whereas the Inca structures remained intact.
The Spaniards used the stones from Qorikancha as foundations for the cathedral and the Convent of Santo Domingo.
Entrance to Qorikancha – Temple of Sun God
Convent of Santo Domingo in Cuzco, Peru
The Convent of Santo Domingo with Qorikancha ruins inside
Because the ruins of Qorikancha are inside the Convent of Santo Domingo, you need to enter through the convent to visit them.
Qorikancha trapezoidal door
Ruins of the Qorikancha Temple
Qorikancha hallway
Ruins of Qorikancha
The doors, windows, and niches in the interior walls of Inca structures are of trapezoidal in shape, which not only helps the stability of the building but also improves the aesthetics.
Spanish and Inca structures side by side
The Spanish donated the area around Qorikancha to Dominicans, who built the Convent of Santo Domingo on top of Qorikancha. You can now see the Spanish colonial structures with the Inca structures side-by-side.
Colonial Mural Painting
During the Spanish colonial period, the interior sides of Inca structures were covered with plaster and decorated with mural painting. The mural painting shown below was most likely drawn in the 17th century and part of the decoration of the Chapter House of Santo Domingo Priory.ย It was restored in May 2005.
Colonial mural painting found in the Qorikancha Temple complex in Cusco, Peru
Colonial mural painting found in the Qorikancha Temple complex in Cusco, Peru
Saksaywaman
This amazing fortress-like complex was originally built by the Kilke people around 1100 CE. When the Inca conquered the Kilke, they expanded the complex further. After the Spanish conquered theย Inca, they destroyed as much as they can and reused the stones for other structures such as churches.
Because of its structure and the style, historians widely believe Saksaywaman was a fortress and not a temple. Some of the stones used in the structure were so massive they weighed between 90 to 120 tons. Stones were of different sizes and shapes but were perfectly fused together like a Jigsaw puzzle. It is not fully understood how this structure was constructed by the people who did not have sophisticated metal tools.
Saksaywaman near Cuzco, Peru
Saksaywaman near Cuzco, Peru
Polygonal Walls of Saksaywaman
Urubamba Valley
The Urubamba Valley runs along the Urubamba River and is called the sacred valley of the Incas. Many mountain peaks lie on both sides of this scenic valley and some of them as high as 18,000 feet. The Inca cultivated maize in the Urubamba Valley and used it to brew Chicha, aย drink that the Incas used in their festivals and celebrations.
Urubamba – Sacred Valley of the Incas
Veronoica peak as seen from Chinchero, Cusco
Urubamba River near Machu Picchu
Ollantaytambo
Inca fortress and agricultural terraces at Ollantaytambo
Located in the Sacred Valley of the Incas, Ollantaytambo is where the famous Battle of Ollantaytambo took place.ย The Inca resistance leader and the Inca Emperor Manco Incaย – who happened to be another brother of Atahualpa (the last independent Inca Emperor) – defeated the Conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro’s half-brother Hernando Pizarro. When Hernando Pizarro arrived at the fortress (see image below) with his cavalry and the native soldiers, Manco Inca flooded the plain below the fortress forcing Hernando’s cavalry to retreat. The Spanish returned with greater force and eventually took overย Ollantaytambo and Manco Inca retreated to the forests.
The image above shows the fortress of Manco Inca where he defeated the Spanish Conquistadors. The images below show the area around the city of Ollantaytambo.
Ollataytambo Police Station
Mountains near Ollantaytambo
Rural Ollantaytambo
Strange vegetation on top of a house
Native Tradition
A house with a cross and two bulls on the rooftop at Ollantaytambo
The rooftops of some houses in the Cuzco region have ceramic statues of two bulls and a cross. The native people in this region believe that the statues of the bull on the rooftop bring wealth and happiness. In addition, they consider the bull a symbol of fertility.
The tradition of placing the statues of the bulls on the rooftop predates the Spanish rule. The native people kept this tradition even after they became Catholic, but inserted a cross in between the statues of the bulls.
The image shows the statues of two bulls and a cross placed on the rooftop of a traditional house in Ollantaytambo near Cuzco.
Inca Village
Time seems to have stopped in a village near Ollantaytambo. It has houses, buildings and the drainage channels from Inca times. The residents of this village mostly live their lives like people used to live in Inca times.
The images below show the village streets and people.
An indigenous woman carrying a child in an Inca village near Ollantaytambo
An Inca village near Ollantaytambo in the Cuzco region of Peru
An Inca village near Ollantaytambo in the Cuzco region of Peru
The imges below show the interior views of a house actively used by an indeigenous family. As you can see from the image, there are cups, bowls, and stone tools used for cooking and other household functions. There are also dolls and ceramic figures of bulls and a shaman.
Guinea pigs are native to the Andean region and were domesticated long before the Spanish arrived. The guinea pig meat is a delicacy, and the Inca families bread guinea pigs for their own consumption.
Objects inside an Inca house
Guinea pigs inside an Inca house
Peruvian Andes Mountains
The Andes Mountain range passes through the Cuzco region. The name Andes was derived from the Quechua word anti which means east.
In the Cuzco region, two popular peaks on the Andes mountain range are Veronica and Salcantay.ย The Veronica peak is one of the most visible peaks around the Cuzco region. You can view the Veronica peak during the bus journey from Cuzco to Ollantaytambo and train journey to Aguas Calientes from Ollantaytambo.
Salcantay is located 50 miles northwest of Cuzco and the peak is visible from the Inca trail.
Andes mountain peak near Chinchero
Veronoica peak as seen from Chinchero, Cusco
A view of Veronica peak captured at Chinchero, Cusco
Veronica peak as seen from the Vistadome train
Peruvian Andes – An aerial view
Town of Aguas Calientes in the valley below the Machu Picchu site
Situatedย on the western coast of Asia Minor (currently in Turkey), Ephesus is an ancient city inhabited and controlled by Greeks, Romans, and early Christians over a period of 2000 years. Most people know Ephesus from its mention in the Bible, especially in St. Paul’s letter to the Ephesians, but Ephesus was famous well before that. Because of its wealth and the strategic position in the Aegean Sea, it was a coveted city by the major powers of the Mediterranean, including Greeks, Persians, and Romans, and they often fought to take control of the city.
At its peak during Roman times, Ephesus had a population of more than 200,000 people. It is huge compared to the cities of ancient times. Ephesusย was an important port city linked to many major ports in the Mediterranean. During Roman times, it exported spices from Asia Minor and Central Asia,ย and it imported rice, silk, and finished goods, including glass products and textiles from major Roman ports and the port of Alexandria, Egypt.
A look at the ruins in Ephesus suggests that ancient structures were a mix of Greek and Roman architecture and construction. When the Romans conquered Ephesus, they used Greek columns and other materials to build their temples and buildings. The Christians continued this trend by building churches using materials from the Roman and Greek buildings.
Location
History
Quoting Hittite sources, some scholars suggest that Ephesus was the capital of Arzawa, an independent kingdom in Asia Minor, ย and used to be called Apasa, which eventually became Ephesus.
According to a legend,ย Ephesus was founded by Amazons, a famed tribe of women warriors. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Bronze Age people lived in this area. The migration from Greece started in 1200 BCE and eventually became a Greek city.
Around the 7th century BCE, Ephesus started emerging as a prominent city under the rule of Lydian kings. It became prosperous and a great center of learning in which women enjoyed equal rights as men. The Temple of Artemis, one of the seven ancient wonders of the world, was built during this period by a Lydian king called Croesus. Later,ย Persians invaded Ephesus and defeated Lydians and took control of the city until Alexander the Great retook it from the Persians in 334 BCE.
As the Greek influence faded, the Roman Empire took control of this city and became an important center of trade and commerce, while still maintaining its superiority in learning and intellectual pursuits. The Celsus Library is a testament to its leading role in learning during that era.
As Christianity started spreading, early Christians visited Ephesus in the first century in an effort to convert the inhabitants. St. Paul said to have preached in the amphitheater. St. John and Virgin Marry believed to have lived in this city and were buried there. St. Paul wrote the Book of Ephesians, which is an Epistle, addressing the Christians of Ephesus.
The rise of Christianity sealed the fate of the city. As Christianity took root in the Roman Empire, worshiping of pagan gods was forbidden resulting in the closure of temples, which lead to their eventual destruction. The magnificent Temple of Artemis was believed to have been destroyed by a Christian mob. ย Women, who enjoyed equal rights and were prominent citizens until then, were relegated to insignificant roles. Ephesus never regained its former glory or prominence.
The final death knell came when the harbor was pushed slowly a few miles away from the city due to the gathering silt from the river. Eventually, Ephesus lost access to the Aegean Sea and stopped being a port resulting in a huge loss of population. In the 14 century, the Ottoman Empire took control of Ephesus. It was completely abandoned in the 15th century.
Monuments Near State Agora
Agora in Greek means meeting place, and it is similar to a town square or plaza of our times. As you enter Ephesus, you will see the ruins of several monuments in and around State Agora. These include Baths of Varius, Bouleterion (Odeon) and Prytaneion.
Baths of Varius
The Baths of Varius is located at the main entrance of Ephesus because when people entered the city, they wanted to freshen up and rest. It is a typical Roman bath with hot and cold rooms. ย This is one of the four baths that existed in Ephesus.
Baths of Varius
Bouleterion (Odeon)
In a typical Greek city-state, a Bouleterion was where the members of the Senate got together to discuss the matters of the state.
Built in the shape of a theater, the Bouleterion was also used as a concert hall where music performances and contests were held.
Bouleuterion
Prytaneion
A Prytaneion is an assembly of buildings and structures that were used to house the executive branch of the Greek Government. It is current equivalent of a city hall. The officials who administered the city met in these buildings. These buildingsย were typically constructed near the Agora. Prytaneion contained a hearth to hold the perpetual fire, ย which is a symbol of Goddess Hastia.
Prytaneion
Domitian Square
The Domitian Square had a temple dedicated to the Roman Emperor Domitian (81-96 CE). Known to be a tyrant, Emperorย Domitian was the one who banished Apostle St. John to the island of Patmos. After he was assassinated by one of his servants, this temple was rededicated to his father,ย Emperor Vespasian.
Domitian Temple
A beautifully carved sculpture of Nike, the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, is located at the Domitian Square. The carving portrays her as if she is flying with wings and multi-folded dress with a “swoosh.” The inspiration for the logo of Nike, the sportswear company, seems to have come from the folds of her dress.
Carving of Goddess Nike in Ephesus, Turkey
Asclepeion
In ancient times, Ephesus was well-known for its medical school and expertise in medicine. The image below shows the stone found in the ruins of Asclepeion, a healing temple dedicated to the Greek god of medicine Asclepius.ย It carved with a snake coiled around a staff known as the Rod of Asclepius. A similar symbol with two snakes coiled around a staff known as the caduceus is widely-used in modern times as the universal symbol to represent medicine and healthcare.
Greek Symbol of Medicine
Ephesus is the birthplace of Soranus, a Greek physician who is famous for his work on gynecology and obstetrics. He lived in the 2nd century and practiced in Alexandria and Rome. Another Greek physician Rufus (80 -150 CE) practiced in Ephesus and wrote treatises on anatomy, pathology and, dietetics.
Memmius Monument
Built between 50 and 30 BCE, this monument was dedicated to Caius Memmius. He was the grandson of Sulla, a Roman dictator who sacked Ephesus in 84 CE.
Memmius Monument
Fountain of Pollio
In ancient times, Ephesus had one of the best aqueducts in the world. Built in 97 CE, the Pollio Fountain was dedicated to C. Sextilius Pollio, the builder of one of the aqueducts.
Fountain of Pollio
The Pollio Fountain was a two-story structure with an imposing arch that was visible from many parts of the city. The fountain provided free water to the citizens and visitors.
Curetes Street
Lined with rows of shops, inns, religious and civic buildings, the Curetes Street, which is 2010 meter long, was Ephesus’ main boulevard. Both sides of the street had sidewalks with the mosaic pavement. Horses, chariots, and carts used this street, and just like in modern times, a sewer channel ran under the street.
Curetes Street
Trajan Fountain (The Nympheum)
As the name suggests, this fountain was dedicated to the Emperor Trajan (97-117 CE) and situated on the right side of the Curetes Street.
Trajan Fountain
Scholastikia Baths
Named after Christiane Scholastikia, who restored them in 400 CE, the Scholastikia Baths were typical Roman baths consisting of hot and cold water rooms.
Latrines of Scholastikia Baths
The ruins of these baths are famous for their toilets or latrines. Built along the walls of this structure are the rows of seats made of marble. The flushing system ran the used water from baths through the canals under the seats. This structure also had a pool at the center.
Hadrian Temple
The Hadrian Temple was built to honor Emperor Hadrian (117 – 138),ย who visited Ephesus in 128 CE. At the center of the arch that is in the front of the temple is the carving of the head of Tyche, the goddess of fortune. Above the door at the back of the temple is the carving of Medusa standing with acanthus leaves. On both sides of this door, the friezes portray the story of the foundation of Ephesus.
Hadrian Temple in Ephesus, Turkey
A frieze in the Hadrian Temple in Ephesus, Turkey
Hadrian Temple
Roman Terrace Houses
Owned by rich Romans, the terrace houses are on a hill in front of the Hadrian Temple. The restoration of these houses is currently underway. The three terraces that are in the restored area housed six residential units.
Even though the facades of the houses were ordinary compared to the other buildings in Ephesus, the interior decoration was exquisite. The walls were covered with paintings and frescoes and floors paved with mosaic. The images below show the interiors of the Roman Terrace Houses.
A Roman Terrace House in Ephesus, Turkey
Frescoes in a Roman Terrace House in Ephesus, Turkey
Mosaic on the floor of a Roman Terrace House in Ephesus, Turkey
Arch in a Roman Terrace House in Ephesus, Turkey
Roman Terrace Houses
The terrace houses had excellent heating systems and plumbing. By using the same system as in the Roman baths, these houses were provided with hot and cold water.
Celsus Library
This magnificent building is located at the end of Curetes Street. To its left is the Mazeus Gate, one of the entrances to the Commercial Agora.
The Celsus Library building was also the mausoleum ofย Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, who was the Roman Proconsul of the Asian province of Rome between 105 and 107 CE. He was buried in a crypt under the library. The building was commissioned by his son Gaius in 114 CE and completed in 117 CE.
Celsus was a Greek who rose to become a Roman Senator and in the process accumulated a lot of wealth, which was used his to build this library. At its peak, the Celsus Library was home to 12,000 scrolls and manuscripts and was one of the biggest libraries of ancient times.
In 262 CE, an earthquake destroyed the building except for the facade. Many centuries later (most likely in the 10th century), another earthquake destroyed the facade.
What we see now is the two-story facade restored in the 1970s. The restoration made use of the fragments of the original structure found in the site as well as the copies of the related artifacts available in various museums.
Celsus Library in Ephesus, Turkey
Celsus Library in Ephesus, Turkey
Celsus Library
Menorah
The carving of a menorah was found on the steps of ย the Celsusย Library. When St Paul visited Ephesus in 53 CE, he found a sizable Jewish community there. However, no ruins of a synagogue have even been found in Ephesus.
Menorah on the steps of Celsus Library
Commercial Agora
The Commercial Agora Ephesus was the marketplace where the residents and visitors came to buy things. The shape of the Commercial Agora was square and lined up with shops along each side.ย It had existed since the third century BCE and had the following three gates:
Gate of Mazeus Mithridates next to the Celsus Library
Front of Amphitheater
Arcadian street gate from the harbor side
Only the gate from the Celsus Library side has been restored. It was built by two freed slaves Mazeus and Mithridate and was dedicated to Emperor Augustus whom they served.
Mazeus Gate – One of the entrances to the Commercial Agora
Commercial Agora in Ephesus, Turkey
Commercial Agora in Ephesus, Turkey
Commercial Agora
Great Theater
The Great Theater of Ephesus was one of the biggest structures in Ephesus. The Greeks constructed the original theater in the 3rd century CE. The Romans later expanded and remodeled it to suit their amphitheater style of construction.
The structure we see today has the capacity of 25,000 people. In ancient times, it was used for political and religious gatherings, and sometimes for sports, such as gladiator fights. St. Paul believed to have preached in this theater. Recently, this was the location for many musical concerts. Such events are not allowed anymore for fear of causing damage to the structure.
Great Theater of Ephesus
Great Theater of Ephesus
Great Theater
Arcadiane Way
Located in front of the Amphitheater, the Arcadiane Street leads the way to the harbor. It was built to honor Eastern Emperor Arcadius (395-408 CE), who restored it. The Arcadiane Street is also known as the Harbor Street because it leads to the Ephesus Harbor.ย The original Arcadiane Street was built sometime in the 1st century CE. After an earthquake destroyed it in 267 CE, it was rebuilt again.
The street is about 2000 feet long and 40 feet wide and was paved with marble slabs. The visitors who arrived by the harbor entered Ephesus through this street. It was an impressive sight with beautifully decorated shops and colonnades lined on both sides of the street.
Arcadiane way
Author Notes
If you are interested in Greek, Roman or Christian history, Ephesus is the place to visit. ย Even if you are not, visiting this ancient city that contains ruins of magnificent buildings of the ancient world will leave you a lasting impression. The ruins of Ephesus provide a glimpse of how life was like in ancient times. The archaeological site at Ephesus is maintained well, and the excavation is still going on. New things are still being discovered.
Copyright ยฉ 2017 – 2018 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
A magnificent temple complex dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses
Known for its grandeur and magnificent architecture, Prambanan is a massive Hindu temple complex (also known as Rara Jonggrang complex) situated 11 miles northeast of Yogyakarta in Indonesia. Built around 900 CE by the rulers of the Sanjaya dynasty who ruled the Mataram Kingdom of Java, this complex contains multiple temples dedicated to the gods, goddesses, and rishis (sages) of Hindu mythology.
According to an inscription found in Java, King Rakai Pikatan started the construction around 850 CE with a small set of temples. His successors, especially Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu, later built most of the temples that we now see in this complex. Many kings who came after them also made minor contributions. Eventually, there were a total of 224 temples in the complex. Not all of them have been restored.
The six main temples in this complex are dedicated to the Hindu Trimurti (Trinity) Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma and their respective vahanas (vehicles) Nandi, Garuda and Angsa (Hamsa or Swan). The other temples include temples for the Goddess Saraswati and Rishi Agastya.
Borobudur, which is the other world-famous site in the Yogyakarta area, is located about 50 miles from Prambanan and was built about 50 years before Prambanan. The rulers of the Sanjaya dynasty, who were Shaivaits (followers of Shiva), were competing with the Buddhist Shylendra dynasty, the builder of Borobudur. Both the Prambanan and Borobudur temples were declared world heritage sites by UNESCO.
Each temple in the Prambanan complex has a garbhagriha (inner sanctum) where the main statue of the temple is housed. It is on an elevated platform and visitors approach it through a staircase. Enclosing the inner sanctum is a square-shaped corridor with balustrades carved with bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Prambanan temple complex
Shiva Temple
Shiva Temple
This temple is dedicated to Shiva the destroyer, one of the Hindu Trinity. Because the rulers who commissioned the Prambanan temples were worshipers of Shiva, the Shiva Temple became the main temple of the complex.
The Dutch restored the temple the first time in the early 1900s. It is 47 meters high and the tallest temple in the complex.
The inner sanctum has four cellas (chambers), each of which faces a cardinal direction and houses a statue. The statue of Shiva is in the east-facing cella. The other three statues are, Goddess Durga as Mahisasuramardini is the north-facing cella, Shiva’s son Ganesha in the west-facing cella and Agastya in the south-facing cella.
At the entrance, it also houses the statues of Mahakala and Nandishwara considered as the guardians. The bas-reliefs in this temple depict stories from Ramayana, one of the great Hindu epics.
Check the Prambanan Bas-Reliefs page for a detailed explanation of some of the interesting bas-reliefs in Prambanan.
East facing chamber – Shiva
Shiva
Unlike a typical Shiva temple in India, there is no Shiva Linga in this temple. Instead, the statue of Shiva stands on top of a square platform that has a small canal on the right. The square platform represents yoni (symbolizes the womb of Shiva’s wife). Shiva stands on a round pedestal carved with petals of the lotus flower on the outside. The lotus pedestal is mounted within the square space of the yoni.
Some experts believe that the statue of Shiva resembles King Balitung Maha Sambu. It was likely built after his death to show that he was the reincarnation of Shiva.
Here are some of the depictions of Shiva in Southeast Asia and India:
North facing chamber – Durga as Mahishasuramardini
Durga as Mahishasuramardini
The narrative statue shown in the image depicts Goddess Durga slaying Mahishasura, an evil demon who took the form of a buffalo. This feat was responsible for her title, Mahishasuramardini, which is a combination of three Sanskrit words: mahisha (buffalo), asura (demon), and mardini (slayer). The slaying of Mahishasura is all about the triumph of good over evil and is based on an episode narrated in Devi Mahatmya, a part of Markandeya Purana. Created by combining energies from Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma, and other gods, Durga is a Hindu goddess of war who fights evil forces. She has ten arms, each holding different weapons/objects given to her by various gods.
The statue of Ganesha, one of the sons of Shiva, is in the west-facing chamber. With the elephant head and human body, Ganesha is a unique Hindu god widely worshiped in India and Southeast Asia.
South facing chamber – Agastya
Agastya
The statue of Agastya, one of the most revered rishis (sages) in Hinduism, stands in the south-facing chamber of the inner sanctum of the Shiva Temple. Agastya is portrayed as a stocky man with a long beard. On his left hand, he holds a kamandala, a water pot typically held by ascetics in Hinduism. On his right hand, which is folded across his chest, he holds the beads of a japamala (prayer beads). As with many other statues in Prambanan, the Agastya statue stands on a round pedestal carved on the outside with the petals of the lotus flower. An upright trishula (trident) stands on the right side of the statue.
Agastya is revered and worshiped in South India. Check these pages: Legend of Badami and Agastya Lake. His name appears in all the four Vedas, many Puranas, and Ramayana and Mahabharata. He also authored some hymns in Rigveda, one of the four Vedas.
Brahma Temple
Brahma
Even though Brahma is the creator and one of the Hindu Trinities in Hindu mythology, he is not worshiped like Shiva and Vishnu. Therefore, there are very few temples dedicated to him in the Indian Subcontinent as well as in Southeast Asia. The Brahma Temple in Prambanan is one of the prominent temples among them. The other well-known Brahma Temple is in Pushkar, Rajasthan, India. The Belur Chennakeshava Temple in Karnataka, India, has a beautiful relief depicting Brahma.
There are several legends as to why Brahma is not worshiped. According to one legend, his consort Savitri, who was angered by Brahma’s extreme lust, cursed him not to be worshiped anywhere in the world except in Pushkar. In another legend, Shiva cursed Brahma because he lied to him and Vishnu about their creation.
The statue of Brahma as shown in the image stands in the inner chamber of this temple. The four faces symbolize the four cardinal directions and four Vedas.
Brahma had five heads in the beginning with the fifth one gazing upwards. According to one legend, Shiva cut off the fifth head when he realized Brahma became infatuated with a female goddess he created.
Vishnu Temple
Vishnu
This temple is dedicated to Vishnu the protector. The bas-reliefs in this temple depict stories from Krishnayana. Note that Krishna is the eighth avatar of Vishnu. Check the Dashavatara page for a list and description of the ten standard avatars of Vishnu.
As you cas see from the image, Vishnu has four arms, two of which are raised up and the other two are down. This is how Vishnu is typically portrayed in Hindu temples in India and Southeast Asia. Here are his signature objects carried by his four hands:
Shanka : Upper left hand – It is a conch shell named Panchajanya that emerged as a by-product during the Samudra Manthana. It was responsible for the creation of the panchabhootas (five elements), which are: water, fire, earth, and sky. When blown, it produces a giant primeval sound.
SudarshanaChakra: Upper right hand – It is a disc-like weapon with serrated edges. When fired, it spins and moves with a rapid force to destroy evil and then returns to Vishnu.
Padma: Lower left hand – It is a sacred lotus flower that represents beauty, purity, and evolution
Gadaa: Lower right hand – It is a mace named Kaumodaki and represents strength
The order in which Vishnu holds his objects vary. With four hands, there are a total of 24 combinations, and sometimes a combination indicates a particular form of Vishnu.
Just like many other statues in Prambanan, Vishnu is standing on a lotus flower pedestal mounted on a square-shaped yoni.
Wahana temples
Each of the Trimurti temples has a wahana temple in front of them.
Nandi Temple
The temple for Shiva’s vehicle Nandi is in front of the Shiva Temple. In the inner chamber of this temple, the statue of Nandi is in the middle, and the statues of Dewa Surya (Sun God) and Dewa Chandra (Moon God) are on the left and right sides of Nandi respectively. These three statues symbolize the constant watch of Shiva by his vehicle Nandi and the celestial objects, Sun and Moon.
Dewa Surya
Nandi
Dewa Chandra
Statues inside the Nandi Temple
Angsa Temple
Angsa (Hamsa) is Brahma’s vehicle and represented as a sacred swan. There is no main statue in this temple. It is not known whether the statue existed in the original building.
Garuda Temple
Garuda is Vishnu’s vehicle and is an eagle. Just like the Angsa Temple, there is no main statue in this temple.
Located about 30 miles northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is the largest and one of the most beautiful Buddhist monuments in the world. This magnificent structure was built between 778 and 850 CE by the rulers of the Shylendra (Cailendra) dynasty, who were the followers of Mahฤyฤna Buddhism. According to an inscription, King Samaratungga of this dynasty commissioned this monument.
The Borobudur monument was buried under volcanic ash around 1000 CE and lay hidden for many centuries until it was discovered by the British in 1815. The Dutch, who were the colonial masters at that time, excavated and restored it in 1907 and 1911. Later, Indonesia continued the restoration and completed it in 1983.
Borobudur is now a UNESCO World Heritage site. Although Hinduism and Buddhism did not originate in Indonesia, Indonesians are proud of their heritage and the monuments. They have done an excellent job of restoring and maintaining these archaeological sites.
Borobudur Structure
Unlike the other Buddhist structures in the world, Borobudur is unique in that its structure looks like a step pyramid and the size comparable to Giza Pyramids in Egypt. The image below is a drawing showing the half cross-section of the monument.
Details of Borobudur Temple layers
The Borobudur monument is about Buddhist philosophy and Gauthama Buddha’s birth, life, death, and enlightenment. According to Buddhist philosophy, human beings need to go through three realms to attain enlightenment. These are:
Kฤmadhฤtu: The word kฤma in Sanskrit roughly translates to desire or lust. This is the actual physical realm of humans and animals who have desire and lust. This realm is equivalent to the Bhuloka in Hinduism.
Rลซpadhฤtu: The word rลซpa in Sanskrit refers to form or shape. This is the realm of ascetics and lesser gods who have controlled their worldly desires but still remain human. This realm is equivalent to Bhuvaloka in Hinduism.
Arลซpadhฤtu: The word arลซpa in Sanskrit refers to formlessness. This realm is an abstract level of consciousness. The holiest of the holy reside in this realm and have no physical form. People who attain enlightenment live in this realm. This realm is equivalent to Svarloka/Svargalokaย in Hinduism.
Built like a pyramid, the structure of Borobudur has three distinct layers to reflect the concept behind the three realms mentioned above. The top layer with three round terraces represents Arลซpadhฤtu. The middle layer, the biggest with five terraces, represents Rลซpadhฤtu. The lowest layer, which is the courtyard, represents Kฤmadhฤtu.
Exterior of the Borobudur Temple
Arลซpadhฤtu Layer
Representing Arลซpadhฤtu is the top layer of the temple consisting of three circular terraces, each of which has numerous bell-shaped stupas and statues of Buddha.
Situated in the middle of the topmost terrace is a large bell-shaped stupa, known as the mother stupa, with a pinnacle on top. In the original structure, this pinnacle supported a giant umbrella, which was destroyed later by lightning. Experts believe that a golden statue of Buddha was inside this stupa but was stolen in the 1800s.
The topmost terrace has 16 stupas, the second terrace from the top has 24 stupas, and the third has 32 stupas. Placed inside each stupa is a statue of Buddha, known as Dhyani Buddha Vajrasattva, with the Dharmachakra Mudra (hand gesture), a symbol for the wheel of Dharma.
Top three terraces of Borobudur
Sunrise
At dawn, the top terraces provide a spectacular view of the temple and lush green mountainous terrain surrounding Borobudur. A large number of visitors climb this monument early morning to view the sunrise from the top terraces.
Sunrise at Borobudur
Rลซpadhฤtu Layer
The Rลซpadhฤtu layer, which represents the Rลซpadhฤtu realm, is the body of the temple and is the middle layer consisting of five square terraces, each with four corridors. Carved into the walls – both inner and balustrade – of these corridors are the narrative bas-reliefs depicting the stories related to Buddhism. Placed inside the niches above the walls are the beautifully carved Dyani Buddha statues.
Corridors of the Rลซpadhฤtu terraces
Dhyani Buddha Statues
There are 432 Dhyani Buddha (Meditating Buddha) statues in the Rลซpadhฤtu layer. Although these statues may look alike, they have different hand gestures called mudras. In Buddhism, there are five standard mudras.
A Dhyani Buddha statue with a particular mudra has a name and meaning. All the Buddha statues pointing to a cardinal direction (i.e., one of north, east, south, west) have the same mudras. Here is a list of the five mudras and the name of the corresponding Buddha.
Bhumisparsha Mudra
A Dhyani Buddha statue with the Bhumisparshamudra gesture
Bhumisparsha in Sanskrit means touching the earth. In this gesture, all the five fingers of the right-hand point to the ground. This mudra refers to Buddha calling the earth as the witness. The Buddha with this pose is called Asokabhya. All the Buddha statues in the east direction have this mudra.
Dhyana Mudra
A Dhyani Buddha statue with the Dhyanamudra gesture
This gesture is performed by placing the upward-facing right palm on top of the upward-facing left palm. This mudra represents silence or meditation. The Buddha with this pose is called Amitabha. All the Buddha statues in the west direction have this mudra.
Abhaya Mudra
A Dhyani Buddha statue with the Dhyanamudra gesture
In this gesture, the right hand is held upright with the palm facing outwards. This mudra represents fearlessness and reassurance. The Buddha in this pose is called Amoghasidha, and the statues in the north direction have this mudra.
Vara Mudra
A Dhyani Buddha statue with the Varamudra gesture
In this gesture, the right-hand palm is open upwards with the fingers slightly pointing downwards. This mudra represents charity and compassion. The Buddha with this pose is called Ratnasambhava. The statues in the south direction have this mudra.
Vitฤraka Mudra
Buddha with the Vitaraka Mudra Gesture
In this gesture, the right hand is upright with its palm facing outwards, and in this hand, the thumb and index finger touch to form a circle while the other three fingers point upwards.
This mudra represents teaching and debate. This Buddha with this pose is called Vairochana. The statues in the center have this mudra.
Story Panels
The story panels cover both the inner and balustrade walls of the corridors of the five Rลซpadhฤtu layer terraces. Carved into these panels are the narrative bas-reliefs depicting the scenes from ancient Buddhist texts.
The type of stories covered in the Rลซpadhฤtu layer are: โ Gandavyลซha: Stories of Sudhana, a boy from India, moving from teacher to teacher in search of wisdom and enlightenment. โ Avadฤna: Similar stories as Jฤtaka, but people are not bodhisattvas โ Lalitavistฤra: Life of Buddha in Tushita Heaven โ Jฤtaka: Stories of Buddha in his previous lives
To get the location of the story panels, check the diagram in the earlier section detailing the contents of the three layers of Borobudur.
Gandavyลซha Story
The Gandavyลซha story panels cover the top three of the five terraces of the Rลซpadhฤtu layer. The scenes in the Gandavyลซha story panels are based on Gandavyลซha Sลซtra, an ancient Buddhist text that chronicles the journey of Sudhana โ a son of a wealthy merchant โ in his quest for wisdom and enlightenment. In his epic journey, he meets a total of 52 teachers from all walks of life, including a king, queen, slave, and even a prostitute.
The last three teachers Sudhana meets before attaining enlightenment are Maitreya, Manjushri, and Samantabhadra, who are Mahฤsattvas (great bodhisattvas).
Here are some of the interesting Gandavyลซha bas-reliefs carved on the top three terraces of the Rลซpadhฤtu layer:
Sudhana meets A Teacher
Sudhana learning from a teacher
This beautifully carved bas-relief depicts Sudhana learning from one of his teachers. As you can see from the image, the teacher is seated on a highly ornate throne, implying that he is a high-ranking person. The hand gesture (Vitฤraka Mudra) made by the teacher indicates that he is delivering a sermon or engaged in a debate.
Sudhana is seated in front of him with folded hands (namaste gesture), and behind him are the other disciples or courtiers engaged in debate. The discourse appears to occur in a beautiful setting with Sudhana and other disciples sitting under the two big trees with birds flying above.
Sudhana meets Maitreya
Sudhana meets Maitreya, the future Buddha
The bas-relief shown in the image depicts Maitreya, the ante-penultimate (third from last) teacher of Sudhana. Maitreya is the Buddha of the future, whose current abode is the Tushita Heaven and is accessible only through meditation. When Sudhana accesses Maitreya through meditation, he takes him to his wondrous tower and reveals the Dharmadhatus (realms of dharma).
As you can see from the image, Maitreya is seated on a highly ornate throne with the Dhyana Mudra gesture, implying that he is meditating. To his left is Sudhana, kneeling and bowing his head with hands on his knees.
This bas-relief is carved on the west-facing inner wall of the third terrace.
Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva
Seated gracefully on a lotus throne is Samantabhadra, one of the eight Mahฤsattvas (great bodhisattvas) of the Mahฤyฤna Buddhism. Bodhisattva Samantabhadra is the final teacher Sudhana meets before he attains enlightenment.
This bas-relief is on the balustrade wall of the fourth Rลซpadhฤtu terrace. As you can see, his body is covered with beautiful jewelry, including necklaces, armlets, bracelets, and udiyana (waist chain). Hanging from the left shoulder to the right side of his waist is a looped thread, known as yajnopavita. Adorning his head is an intricately-carved three-stage mukuta (crown).
His facial expression is calm and serene. With his left hand gently resting on his leg, he is making a gesture known as the Karana Mudra with his right hand. In Sanskrit, mudra refers to a hand gesture. The Karana Mudra is performed by pointing the index and little fingers upwards and ring finger downwards, and curving the middle finger in such way that it touches the thumb. This mudra symbolizes positive energy and is performed to eliminate the negative energy around us. It is believed that Karana Mudra wards-off evil.
Samantabhadra Discourse
The image shows another bas-relief depicting Samantabhadra seated majestically on a throne at the center. It appears as though he is engaged in a discourse with his disciples seated to his left and right. This bas-relief is on the balustrade wall of the third Rลซpadhฤtu terrace.
Avadฤna Tales
In Sanskrit, avadฤna means great act or achievement. Avadฤnas refer to the ancient texts that narrate short stories about the heroic deeds of the people in their previous lives and the role of Karma in their present lives. The heroic deeds include sacrifices, such as oneโs life or wealth, for the good of others. The laws of Karma apply to oneโs actions, i.e., the good deeds result in good outcomes, and evil deeds result in grave consequences.
The Buddhist teachers use the avadฤna stories to teach morals to their followers. A typical story starts with a context, goes into the details of the deeds in oneโs past life, and then their consequences in the present life. The story ends with a moral drawn from it. The Buddha himself narrated some of the stories in his sermons. The avadฤna stories are somewhat similar to the parables in the Bible.
Peacock Story
A majestic peacock on a chariot
In this story, a peacock โ actually a bodhisattva โ became known for its beauty and voice, and Queen Anupama of Vฤranasi coveted it. To get this peacock, she pleaded with her husband, King Brahmadatta, who sent people to capture it, with a warning that they would face the death penalty if they fail.
The peacock came to know about this story when the people tried to capture it. To prevent their deaths, the peacock submitted willingly to go with them to the palace. The bas-relief depicts this part of the story. As you can see, a lovely peacock is standing majestically inside a horse-driven chariot.
The story ends tragically with the death of the queen. When King Brahmadatta was away from the capital fighting a battle, Queen Anupama started an extra-marital affair. When she suspected that the peacock knew her infidelity, she poisoned the peacock, who, instead of dying, became more beautiful. The dejected queen then killed herself.
It is carved on the balustrade walls of the second terrace.
Distributing Food and Jewels
Avadฤna Story – King’s court
Avadฤna Story – Queens’ Court
The bas-relief on the left is part of Avadฤna story panels carved into the inner walls of the first terrace of the Rลซpadhฤtu layer. It likely depicts the court of a king. As you can see, the king is seated on a throne on the right and is receiving offerings from a well-dressed lady. Behind her is a person carrying a box and walking away from the court. Standing at the center is an elegantly dressed young man โ most likely a prince โ handing over fruits to the people, some of whom are kneeling with their hands stretched to receive them.
The bas-relief on the right likely depicts the court of a queen, seated on a throne (on the right edge of the image), where she receives offerings from people. Standing at the center is an elegantly dressed young man โ likely a prince or the king himself โ delivering objects (food or jewels) to the people.
Lalitavistฤra
The Lalitavistฤra bas-reliefs depict stories from the Lalitavistฤra Sลซtra, which is a Mahฤyฤna Buddhist scripture that describes the legends of Gautama Buddha from his descent from the Tusita Heaven until his first sermon at the deer park in Vฤranasi, India. Note: In Sanskrit, lalita means lucid or elegant, and vistฤra means expanse.
The Lalitavistฤra Sลซtra is a multi-author text compiled together pieces of writings in Prakrit and Sanskrit written over a long period. Because of this, there are some overlapping of stories.
Shakyamuni leaving Kapilavastu
The bas-reliefs based on this text appear on the first terrace (from the bottom) of the Rลซpadhฤtu layer. As you can see, the story panel has two registers. The top register depicts the story based onย Lalitavistฤra,ย and the bottom is an Avadฤna story based on Divyavadฤna.ย
The bas-relief on the top register depicts Gautama Buddha leaving Kapilavastu, his native place, in search of the truth. After Gautama Buddha attains enlightenment, he was known as Shakyamuni because of his lineage. Note: In Sanskrit, shakya is the name of his clan, and muni means sage.
Jatฤka Tales
The Jฤtaka tales, which date back to the 4th century BCE, are an important part of Buddhist literature where Buddha appears in different forms, including a king, elephant, and tortoise, in his current and previous lives. The bas-reliefs on the lower terraces of the Rลซpadhฤtu layer depict stories from Jฤtaka Mala, a book written in Sanskrit by Arya Sura sometime in the 8th or 9th century describing 34 Jataka stories. The rock-caves of Ajantha in India also have Jataka stories painted on their ceilings.
Kฤmadhฤtu Layer
A section of the Kamadhatu layer
The courtyard of the Borobudur represents the Kฤmadhฤtu realm.
This layer has only one type of bas-relief, which is called Mahakarmawibhangga. The bas-reliefs in this layer depict general stories of human actions and their consequences. Even though there are 160 reliefs, only a few are open to the public.
The island paradise of Bali is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Southeast Asia. Bali is famous for its natural beauty, exotic culture, and most importantly for its wonderful people. It has beautiful beaches, luscious greenery, volcanic mountains, and lakes.
Bali’s unique heritage and culture were influenced by Hinduism from India. Bali’s landscape is dotted all over the island with Hindu temples called puras. The architecture and styles of these temples are unique to Bali.
Location
Bali is part of the Indonesian archipelago and its eastern tip is located a couple of miles west of Java, another famous island in Indonesia.
History
When Hinduism came to Bali more than 2000 years ago, the Balinese created their own brand of Hinduism by blending it with the practices and rites of their animist past. They continue to practice their brand of Hinduism until theย Majapahit Empire from the neighboring island of Java defeated the King of Bali. The Balinese people then gradually started to adopt the culture of the Javanese Hindus.
When the neighboring island of Java was overwhelmed by the religion of Islam in the 14 century, the defeated Majapahit Empire took the last stand in Bali. The nobility from the Majapahit Empire sought refuge in Bali bringing with them a rich culture of arts, dances and their form of Hinduism.
Bali remained independent with several kingdoms until the Dutch started colonizing them in 1840. Just like the British in India, Dutch employed the Divide and Rule tactics to pit one kingdom against another and eventually took control of most of Bali. The fiercely independent Balinese people fought against the Dutch to gain independence.
During World War II, Imperial Japan occupied Bali in 1942. The Balinese people then started fighting against the Japanese. Gusti Ngurah Rai was the leader of the rebellion.ย After the Japanese surrender, the Dutch returned to Bali. With Gusti Ngurah Rai as their leader, Balinese once again rebelled against them using the arms left by the Japanese army. Once Indonesia gained independence, Bali became a province of Indonesia in 1949. The international airport in Bali is named afterย Gusti Ngurah Rai.
Religion andย Culture
A vast majority of Balinese people practice Hinduism. They follow Aagama Hindu Dharma (Aagama means traditional in Sanskrit), which came to Bali from the neighboring island of Java, and is a blend of Shaivaism, Buddhism and indigenous beliefs. They believe in one supreme God (Brahman), ย the immortal individual soul (Atma), and the pillars of the Hindu faith Dharma, Karma, Samsara and Moksha. The Balinese society follows an occupation-based social class system similar to Hindu varnashrama with the following four varnas: Brahmanas (priests), Satrias (kings and warriors), Wesias (nobility and traders) and Sundras (farmers).
There are many differences between the Hinduism practiced in India and Bali. Unlike in most Indian temples, temples in Bali have women poojaris (priestesses).ย Even though the Balinese follow a stringent form of Hinduism, they are not vegetarian and do not consider cow is sacred. In fact, they eat beef. ย Balinese women wear bindis (dots on the forehead) made of rice.
Even though Bali belongs to the Muslim majority country Indonesia, they practice their religion freely. There is no persecution of Balinese Hindus. In fact, there are few Muslims in Bali. This is true for Christianity as well. Despite Bali being a Dutch colony, there are not many Christians there either.
Balinese Dances
Balinese dances provide a glimpse of the cultural traditions of Bali. The inspiration for Balinese dances comes from nature, religion, and lifestyle of the Balinese people. The dance form is ritualistic and very expressive, and the dancers use hand gestures similar to the mudras performed in dances in India. The dance dramas are typically based on stories from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Some of the Balinese dance traditions predate Hindu influence. ย The current Balinese dance form is a fusion between indigenous Bali and Indian dances. The mythological charactersย Barongย (lion-like creature) and Rangda (demon queen) were inherited from the culture existed in Bali before Hinduism. They are inter-mingled in Ramayana and Mahabharata stories to represent the good and evil forces.
The pictures below show a dance drama performed by the Raja Peni Troupe in Ubud.
A scene from the Mahabharata story
Balinese dance using Barong mask
A scene from the Balinese dance drama performed by the Raja Peni Troupe in Ubud, Bali
Balinese welcome dance
Balinese dances
ย Balinese New Year
The Balinese new year celebration is spread over six days. The actual new year starts on the third day of this celebration and is called Nyepi, which is an important date in Bali and to some extent in Indonesia.
Nyepi is celebrated on the same day as Yugadiย (beginning of a new era) in India. Because the date of this festival is calculated based on a lunar calendar, it is different each year.ย Unlike Yugadi, Nyepi, which means silence in the Balinese language, is celebrated as a day of silence. On that day, the Balinese do not engage in any physical activity, including speech, and practice abstinence. The entire population of Bali stays indoors, and so do tourists. Unlike the other new year celebrations all over the world, tourists are confined to their hotels during this period. Airports and other transportation services are closed for 24 hours.
During the Balinese new year celebrations, people cleanse themselves spiritually and ask forgiveness from each other.ย Nyepi is another great example of how the Balinese adapted their indigenous traditions to blend with the Hindu traditions.
Besakih Temple (Pura Besakih)
Known as the Mother Temple, Besakih is the holiest place in Bali for the Balinese Hindus. It is a complex of several Hindu shrines dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma, the Hindu Trinity. Located 30 miles northeast of Ubud, the Besakih Temple complex was built on the slopes of Mount Agung, which is an active volcano.
The name Besakih is derived from the Sanskrit word Vasuki,ย who in the Hindi mythology is aย nagaraja (king of serpents). Vasuki is the serpent used in Samudra Manthana, a story of about churning of the Ocean of Milk. According to a legend in Bali, Mount Agung became Vasuki ‘s homeย afterย Samudra Manthana.
Besakih was declared a World Heritage Site in 1995 because of its importance to the Balinese people and to the world.ย Although Besakih was built more than 1000 years ago, the temples are actively used by the Balinese Hindus, who come here from all over the island to participate in various festivals and private temple ceremonies. Some temples inside this complex are closed to outsiders.
Main entrance to Besakih Temple
Courtyard of a temple in Besakih
Inner sanctum of a temple in Besakih
Inner sanctum of a temple in Besakih
Pagodas of Besakih Temple in Bali
Devotees entering Besakih Temple with offerings
Visting Besakih
To enter the Besakih complex, you need to wear a Sarong,ย which is a piece of clothing wrapped around your waist, to cover your legs. Sarong must be worn regardless of your gender. Sarongs come in a variety of colors and with beautiful designs, and you can buy or rent them outside the temple complex.
Besaki looks like a stepped pyramid because the temple structures are built on the terraces of the mountain slope. As you enter, the steps built on the left side of the temple lead you to the courtyards of the temples. Not all the temples are open to the public. As you climb these steps, you can view and enjoy the stunning scenery around you.
Uluwatu Temple
The Uluwatu Temple is located on the south-western tip of Bali. It is a small temple dedicated to Rudra and was built on a huge limestone cliff. At the entrance of this temple, there are two pathways – one to the left and other to the right of the temple –ย built on top of the bluff that follows the shoreline. Visitors walk on these pathways to view the spectacular scenery.
A view of the Uluwatu cliff from the right pathway
Temple dedicated to Rudra on the Uluwatu cliff in Bali, Indonesia
A view of the Uluwatu cliff from the left pathway
Uluwatu Temple
Tanah Lot Temple
The Tanah Lot Temple is an iconic landmark of Bali. It is built on a rock formation on the western Bali seashore. The scenery surrounding the temple is spectacular as waves after waves keep pounding the rock formations. There are a few other rock formations nearby and the area behind the temple is lush green.
This temple was built in the 15th century by a Hindu priest who came to Bali from the Majapahit Kingdom of Eastern Java to spread Hinduism. The temple is dedicated to Dewa Baruna (Varuna of Hindu mythology?).
Scenic area near the Tanah Lot Temple in Bali, Indonesia
Rock formations near the Tanah Lot Temple in Bali, Indonesia
Tanah Lot Temple rock
Tanah Lot Temple on the western seashore of Bali, Indonesia
Taman Ayun Temple (Puraย Taman Ayun)
Dedicated to avatars of Vishnu, Taman Ayun is a beautiful temple complex located 11 miles northwest of Denpasar and 5 miles southeast of Ubud in the village of Mengwi. Because it is located in Mengwi, Taman Ayun is also known as Mengwi Temple. It was built in 1634 by the Raja of Mengwi, Tjokerda Sakti Blambangan, and was restored in 1937.
The architecture is a blend of Cambodian and Bali styles. ย Unlike the other temples of Bali, this temple has a wide prakaraย (compound surrounding the temple) and a moat. It has four concentric enclosures with inner ones at a higher level than the outer ones. With beautifully decorated gopuras and shrines, the similarities with the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia is striking.
Inner sanctum of a temple in the Taman Ayun Temple complex
Vishnu sculpture in the Taman Ayun Temple
Garuda Carrying Vishnu – A beautifully carved sculpture standing inside the Taman Ayun Temple
Moat surrounding the Taman Ayun Temple in Bali, Indonesia
Taman Ayun Temple
Rice Terraces
Rice terraces are part of the scenery in Bali. The mountainous terrain of Bali makes it difficult to cultivate rice which is typically grown on a flatter landscape. To overcome this problem, the Balinese people developed an ingenious irrigation system known asย Subak, which is a cooperative water management system that connects canals, tunnels, and weirs and is shared and controlled by the community. Subak is hailed as one of the most efficient and ecologically sustainable irrigation systems in the world.
Rice Terraces in Tegallalang near Ubud
Rice Terraces inTegallalang near Ubud
Rice Terraces
Kintamani
Kintamani is a scenic area in the north-eastern Bali where Mount Batur and Lake Batur are located. This area is still part of an active volcano and is full of black lava rocks.
Mount Batur
Mt. Batur that we see today was formed during the volcanic eruption in 1917. It erupted three more times after that. The last one occurred in 1994 creating many sub-craters.
Mount Batur in Bali, Indonesia
Mount Batur in Bali, Indonesia
Mount Batur
Lake Batur
Located 19 miles northeast of Ubud, Lake Batur is a freshwater lake formed by the volcanic crater. The images show the lake surrounded by the slopes on the crater rim. The spectacular landscape and greenery attract a lot of tourists to this region, which is also home to many hot water springs.
Lake Batur in Bali, Indonesia
A view of Lake Batur
A view of Lake Batur
Lake Batur
With a surface area of 4000 acres, this crescent-shaped lake is the biggest lake in Bali. The maximum length, breadth, and depth are 1.7 mil, 4.7 mil, and 290 ft. It is located about 3300 ft above sea level. The inflow is mainly the rainwater.
The indigenous people of Bali known as Bali Agaย live in the villages that lie along the shores of Lake Batur.ย They practice ancient traditions and rites that existed before the Javanese Hindu culture arrived in Bali. They earn their lively hood by growing tomatoes and garlic.
Rural Bali
Bali in rural areas is known for its natural beauty and tranquility. There is greenery everywhere with paddy fields, palm trees and a variety of fruit-bearing trees. Most Balinese people live in villages away from the tourist areas and lead a traditional life by engaging in farming.
