Banteay Srei Temple

Known for its exceptional beauty, intricate carvings, and fine workmanship, Banteay Srei is a gem among hundreds of temples that dot the Cambodian landscape. Located 16 miles northeast of Siem Reap, it is relatively a small temple complex containing multiple single-story structures. Unlike many other temples in Cambodia, it is not built like a temple-mountain.Dedicated to Shiva, the Banteay Srei Temple has some of the stunningly beautiful bas-reliefs that depict gods, demigods and scenarios based on the episodes from the Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. The bas-reliefs, most of which adorn the pediments, are deeply cut and finely carved. Even after 1000 years, most of the sculptures and bas-reliefs have retained their original sharpness.

A Masterpiece of Khmer Temple Art

Known for its exceptional beauty, intricate carvings, and fine workmanship, Banteay Srei is a gem among hundreds of temples that dot the Cambodian landscape. It is a smaller temple complex containing multiple single-story structures. Unlike many other temples in Cambodia, it is not built like a temple-mountain.

The Banteay Srei Temple has some stunningly beautiful bas-reliefs that depict gods, demigods, and scenes based on the episodes narrated in the Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. The bas-reliefs are deeply cut and finely carved. Even after 1000 years, the carvings have retained their original sharpness.

Unlike most of the other Cambodian temples, Banteay Srei was built predominantly using red sandstone. Because of the color and texture of the sandstone, its carvings appear pleasant and colorful.

Banteay Srei is about 16 miles northeast of Siem Reap and is on the way to the Phnom Kulen mountain range. Many tourists who visit Angkor Wat often miss Banteay Srei because it is not in the Siem Reap region, home to many well-known Hindu/Buddhist temples. You can accomplish the Phnom Kulen and Banteay Srei visits in a single-day trip.

A Bit of History

Banteay Srei is unique in that it is commissioned not by a king (like many other famous temples in the region) but by the courtiers of a king. Yagnavaraha and Vishnukumara were the courtiers who built this temple on the land granted to them by King Rajendravarman. According to an inscription, Yagnavaraha is the grandson of King Harshavarman and the teacher of the future king Jayavarman V. He was known to be a great scholar, philosopher, and philanthropist who fought for justice.

The building of this temple started in 967 CE. The name Banteay Srei is recent, which in Khmer means Citadel of Women or Citadel of Beauty. The name could be referring to the beautiful carvings of women (apsaras and devatas) on the bas-reliefs.

The original name of Banteay Srei was Tribhuvanamaheshwara, which refers to Shiva as the Lord of the Earth, Heaven, and Hell. Note: In Sanskrit, Tribhuvana means three worlds or realms consisting of earth, heaven and hell, and Maheshwara means great god.

The town surrounding the temple used to be known as Isvarapura, which in Sanskrit means Isvara’s town. Isvara is another name for Shiva. After the temple was built, Isvarapura became a town having residents supporting the temple.

Temple Complex

A view of the Banteay Srei temple from the outer enclosure — A view of the Banteay Srei Temple from the outer enclosure

As mentioned, the Banteay Srei Temple was surrounded by a town. The entrance to the temple is through the town gopura (gate), located on the east side. The town gate opens into a long causeway, which leads to the main entrance to the temple.

The Banteay Srei Temple complex has three rectangular concentric enclosures built on the east-west axis. The main temple structures are in the innermost enclosure. The innermost and the middle enclosures are close to each other and are surrounded by brick walls. Separating the outer and middle enclosures is a moat.

The entrance to the temple complex is on the east side and is through a gopura built with an ornate door an exquisitely carved pediment above it. The door opens into the causeway, which leads to the eastern entrance to the outer enclosure.

Gate and Causeway

Entrance to the Banteay Srei Temple complex located near Siem Reap, Cambodia — Entrance to the temple complex

Indra riding Airavata carved on the pediment of the gopura located at the entrance of Banteay Srei — Entrance to the temple complex

The gate at the eastern entrance to the temple

Causeway from the entrance to the middle enclosure of the Banteay Srei temple — Causeway from the entrance to the middle enclosure

The gopura (gate) is mostly made of red sandstone. The door frame and the pediment are beautifully carved. The bas-relief on the pediment depicts Indra riding his vehicle three-headed elephant called Airavata. At each end of the pediment is Makara, a mythical sea creature, spewing multi-headed naga, a mythical serpent.

According to an inscription, this gate used to be the entrance to Isvarapura. It is believed that a wooden wall existed surrounding Isvarapura.

The causeway that leads to the outer enclosure is about 67 meters long. There are 32 boundary marking stones lined along the path.

Outer Enclosure

The outer enclosure measures 110 x 95 sq m, and a laterite wall encloses it. The original construction had the gopuras in the middle of the east and west walls. Only the west gopura exists now, and part of the east gopura is lying on the ground where the original gopura once stood.

The image on the left shows this structure. It is the east-facing pediment of this gopura, and the west-facing pediment is on display at a museum in France.

As you can see from the image, the bas-relief on this pediment depicts Ravana abducting Sita, a well-known episode in Ramayana in which Ravana, a rakshasa and the King of Lanka, kidnaps Sita, Rama’s wife.

Gopura on the west side of the outer enclosure of the Banteay Srei temple. — Gopura on the west side of the outer enclosure

The image shows the west gopura with an ornate pediment. The beautifully carved bas-relief on the pediment depicts Shiva and his consort Parvati (a.k.a Uma) seated on his vehicle Nandi, the bull.

Under Nandi is Kaala, the time demon often associated with Shiva, who, according to Hindu mythology, is the timekeeper of the universe and controls the time cycles by creation, preservation, and destruction.

Surrounding the bas-relief is the decorative carving of Makara, a mythical sea creature, disgorging yakshas from its heads on the left and right ends.

Note: Yakshas in Hindu mythology are the demigods who protect natural treasures, such as water and forests.

Middle Enclosure

The middle enclosure measures 38 x 42 sq m and has gopuras on the east and west sides connected by a brick wall, some portions of which have collapsed. The causeway mentioned before leads to this enclosure, and the moat filled with water on either side of this causeway surrounds this enclosure.

The gopuras on the middle enclosure are ornate with exquisitely carved artwork of creative patterns and narrative bas-reliefs.

East Gopura

The image shows the east-facing view of the eastern wall with a gopura in the middle. As you can see, it is an elaborate structure with three doorways and extending it on either side is the brick wall that surrounds this enclosure.

Gopura on the east side of the middle enclosure of the Banteay Srei temple — Gopura on the east side

The approach to the middle enclosure is through a causeway, i.e., the mud path in front of the gopura. A small part of the moat can be seen in the image on either side of this causeway. A narrow terrace surrounds the wall on its outer side, separating the moat and the wall.

Just like the other gopuras in the temple, the east gopura has two facades: east facing and west facing. The façade shown in the image is the former. The middle door of this gopura is flanked on either side by a false window and a door. The two identical structures visible behind the gopura are the libraries situated inside the inner enclosure. The structures within the middle and inner enclosures harmoniously blend with the surroundings.

The image shows the pediment above the middle door. In the center of this highly ornate pediment is a triangular area with a beautifully carved bas-relief depicting Kaala, a time monster associated with Shiva as he is the timekeeper of the universe, and an unidentified deity above Kaala.

The rest of this triangular area is filled with foliage. Enclosing this area is an exquisitely carved artwork of symmetrical patterns.

Gaja Lakshmi

The west-facing pediment depicts Gaja Lakshmi – one of the eight avatars of Lakshmi- seated on a lotus flower flanked by two gajas (elephants ) performing abhisheka (showering with water and food) and riding Uluka the Owl. Uluka is often associated with Lakshmi, but not always as her vahana (vehicle).

Lakshmi is Vishnu’s wife and goddess of wealth in Hindu mythology. She is known as Ashtalakshmi because of her eight avatars (manifestations), each symbolizing an aspect of wealth. The Gaja Lakshmi avatar symbolizes wealth through strength. According to a myth, Gaja Lakshmi is a by-product of Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk).

Note: Angkor Wat has a bas-relief depicting the story of the Samudra Manthana carved on the eastern gallery located at the lower level of the temple.

West Gopura

Vali - Sugriva fight depicted on the west side gopura of the middle enclosure of the Banteay Srei Temple, Cambodia — Vali – Sugriva fight depicted on the west gopura

Kala (time demon) depicted on the lintel of the west side gopura of the middle enclosure — Vali – Sugriva fight depicted on the west gopura

Gopura on the west side of the middle enclosure

The pediment depicts the fight between the brothers Vali and Sugriva and Rama is trying to help Sugriva. This popular theme from Hindu epic Ramayana is portrayed in many Hindu temples in India and Southeast Asia.

Surrounding Walls

Walls of inner and middle enclosures of the Banteay Srei temple

The inner and middle enclosures are much closer than the outer and middle enclosures. Both the inner and outer enclosures are surrounded by brick walls. As seen in the image below, a narrow empty space separates the enclosures.

Inner Enclosure

This is where the main temple structures are located. The enclosure measures 24 x 24 sq m with a brick wall surrounding it. Built inside this enclosure are the main temple structures, including two libraries and three sanctuary towers. Attached to the middle sanctuary tower is mantapa, a covered hall with an entrance facing east and side entrances facing north and south.

Structures in the innermost enclosure - A view from the northeast side of the Banteay Srei Temple, located in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Structures in the innermost enclosure – A view from the northeast side

The image shows the view of the innermost enclosure from the northeast side. The rightmost structure is the north library and next to it is the east gopura. The structure that has two kneeling dwarapalakas (guardians of the door) in front is the mantapa. The tips of the three sanctuary towers are seen at the far end of the image.

Structures in the inner enclosure as seen from the southwest side of the Banteay Srei Temple — Structures in the innermost enclosure – A view from the southwest side

The image above shows the view of the innermost enclosure from the southwest side. The leftmost structure is the south library and next to it is the east gopura. The view shows the west-facing facades of these structures. The three sanctuary towers are in the front.

Structures in the inner enclosure as seen from the northwest side of the Banteay Srei Temple — Structures in the innermost enclosure – A view from the northwest side

The image shows the view of the innermost enclosure from the northwest side. The rightmost structure is the north library and next to it is the east gopura. The view shows the west-facing facades of these structures. The three sanctuary towers are in the front.

Gopuras

The image shows the east-facing facade of the east gopura. The door frame and the pediment of this gopura are beautifully decorated.

Banteay Srei: Gopura and entrance to the inner enclosure of the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia — Gopura and entrance to the inner enclosure

Banteay Srei: Shiva Tandava Nritya (Shiva's Cosmic Dance) carved into the pediment of the east gopura at the inner enclosure of the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia. — Shiva Tandava Nritya (Shiva’s Cosmic Dance)

Banteay Srei: Nandi in front of the east gopura at the inner enclosure of the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia — Shiva Tandava Nritya (Shiva’s Cosmic Dance)

The pediment depicts the scene Shiva Tandava Nritya, i.e., Shiva performing his cosmic dance of creation, preservation, and destruction.

The lintel depicts Indra, the dikpala (guardian) of the east direction, riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. Each Airavata head is shown as a monster-like figure attached to the elephant head. As you can see from the image below, Indra, whose head is missing, is holding the elephant trunk with the right hand, and the monster head with the left hand. The other two Airavata heads are at the ends.

A damaged statue of Nandi is in front of the gopura.

Mysterious Libraries

Built like mini shrines, the libraries are the unique elements of the Khmer temple architecture. Although their exact purpose is still a mystery, the likely intention of building them was to use them as repositories of manuscripts. It is worth noting that there is no concept of libraries in the architectures of Hindu temples in India.

The Hindu religious texts, which include four Vedas, two epics and 18 Puranas, are large and numerous. The manuscripts of these texts were likely brought from India and were considered precious and sacred. The libraries were likely built to preserve them in a safe place and were designed like shrines to allow people to worship them. However, there is no evidence that the libraries were ever used as repositories of manuscripts.

Located near the entrance of the inner enclosure, the two identically designed library structures, one on the north and the other on the south, are equidistant from the center. In other words, they are like the mirror images of each other.

They are aligned along the east-west direction with ornate facades facing east and west, each of which has a beautifully decorated door, lintel and pediment. The facade facing west has the doorway to enter the building, whereas on the east side, there is just a false door built only for decorative purposes.

The bas-reliefs on the pediments depict stories from the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

South Library

The south library is dedicated to Shiva. Both the east and west facades depict stories about Shiva.

East Facade

The east-facing pediment depicts an episode from Ramayana in which Ravana with his 20 hands tries to lift Mount Kailash, the heavenly abode of Shiva and his consort Parvati (a.k.a Uma) as Shiva sits calmly with his consort Parvati on his lap.

East facing facade of the south library situated in the inner enclosure of Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia. — East facing facade of the south library

Ravana Shaking Mount Kailash

According to the story, Ravana was enraged by Shivas’ vehicle Nandi who did not let Ravana’s plane (Pushpak Vimana) to pass over Shiva’s abode. When Ravana tries to lift Mount Kailash, Shiva holds it down, which enrages Ravana further and he starts shaking the mountain.

West Facade

The west-facing pediment depicts a story from Shiva Purana in which Kama (a.k.a Kamadeva), the god of love and carnal desire, strikes Shiva with Kamabana (Kama’s arrows) to arouse passion and desire in Shiva, who is in the state of meditation.

According to the story, after the death of his wife Sati, Shiva goes into a state of meditation to grieve her death. This results in a great imbalance in the world. Meanwhile, Sati is reborn as Parvati, and all the gods want Shiva to marry Parvati. Sensing this need, Indra sends Kama to arouse passion and desire in Shiva for him to be interested in Parvati.

West-facing south library facade

North Library

The north library is dedicated to Vishnu. Both the east and west facades depict stories about Krishna, who is one of the avatars (manifestations) of Vishnu. The library is built on a raised platform with two levels.

East Facade

The doorway of the facade has a beautifully decorated false door flanked by pilasters. Because this facade is facing east, Indra, who is the dikpala (guardian) of the east, is the theme of the carvings on both the lintel and pediment.

Check the list of Ashta Dikpalas, the eight guardians of directions.

The bas-relief on the lintel depicts Indra riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. As you can see from the image, Indra is in the middle sitting above an elephant head. At each end of the lintel, there is an elephant with a human-like figure sitting on it.

As you can see from the image, there are three pediments. The innermost is the narrowest and is in the front, and the outermost is the widest and is on the back. Each pediment is enclosed by a finely carved creeper which is resting on an intricately decorated pillar.

East facing facade of the north library situated in the inner enclosure of Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia. — East facing facade of the north library

Carved into the lowermost pediment is a narrative bas-relief depicting a well-known episode in Mahabharata, Burning of the Khandava Forest. Here is the story in brief:

Burning of the Khandava Forest

According to the story, the fire god Agni wanted to burn the Kandhava Forest because of a stomach ailment. Disguised as a brahmin, he went to Arjuna, one of the Pandavas, and requested that he was hungry and needed to be satiated. Because Arjuna could not refuse a request from a brahmin, he agreed to Agni’s request. Agni then revealed himself and said to Krishna he was hungry, and the only way he could satiate his hunger was to help him consume the Khandava Forest by letting him burn it. Arjuna reluctantly agreed to help him.

The Kandhava Forest was also the home of Takshaka, the king of nagas (snakes), and Maya, the architect of the asuras. When Agni started the fire, Takshaka was not in the forest, but his family was inside. So, he begged his friend Indra, king of the devas (demigods) and heaven, to help them to escape the fire. Indra agreed and used his power to bring rain to the forest to douse the fire. Arjuna tried to stop the rain by creating a layer of arrows. Meanwhile, Krishna stayed on the other side of the forest and helped Arjuna stop the rain.

While this battle was going on, Takshaka’s wife swallowed her son Ashvasena and tried to fly out of the forest. Realizing that she was trying to escape with her son, Arjuna cut her head off with his arrows but could not prevent Ashvasena from escaping the forest.

Maya also escaped the forest and then sought asylum from Arjuna. Eventually, Agni consumed the entire Khandava Forest and cured his stomach ailment.

Burning of the Khandava Forest - An episode from Mahabharata depicted on the east-facing north library pediment of Banteay Srei in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Burning of the Khandava Forest

This is one of the most beautiful and detailed bas-reliefs in the temple. On the top is Indra riding his vehicle Airavata and trying to bring down the rain on the forest. The layer underneath Indra depicts flowing water, giving an impression of rain coming down. On the left is Arjuna shooting arrows to stop the rain. Below the water, there are two layers of arrows, created by Arjuna, preventing the water from coming down. On the right is Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, holding his signature weapon, Sudarshana Chakra, helping Arjuna. Between Arjuna and Krishna is the forest with a chaotic scene of animals, Takshaka’s family, and Maya and other asuras trying to escape the fire.

Notice the two multi-headed nagas in the middle of the arrow layers. These are Takshaka’s wife and their son Ashvasena. As mentioned in the story, Ashvasena escaped Arjuna’s arrows through the brave action of his mother, who swallowed him to shield him from the barrage of arrows. Although she died in the ordeal, she enabled Ashvasena to escape the fire.

West Facade

The west pediment shows Krishna killing Kamsa, a popular theme portrayed in many Hindu temples in Cambodia and Indonesia (See Prambanan and Prambanan Bas-Reliefs).

Krishna killing Kamsa, a scene from Mahabharata depicted on the west-facing facade of the north library — Krishna killing Kamsa

Krishna killing Kamsa - An episode from Mahabharata depicted on the west-facing pediment of the north library — Krishna killing Kamsa

West-facing north library facade

Sanctuary Towers (Prasats)

Aligned along the north-south direction, the three sanctuary towers in the inner enclosure are close to each other and symbolically represent the Hindu Trinity, Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma. The sanctuary towers are the most sacred buildings in the temple.

Each tower has an inner sanctum, i.e., a chamber with the deity. Because Banteay Srei is a Shiva temple, Shiva is considered the dominant god of the trinity. The middle tower is dedicated to Shiva, and to show his dominance, it is taller than the other two. Its inner sanctum likely had a Shivalinga or a statue of Shiva. For this reason, it is taller than the other two towers, which likely had statues of Vishnu and Brahma.

The south and north sanctuary towers have three outward facades, each of which has a door with multi-level pediments and a lintel. The entrance is only on the east side and the rest three facades have false doors. The central tower has only one outward facade, which is on the west side.

Central Sanctuary Tower

The central tower is home to a Shiva Linga inside the inner chamber. It is taller than the other two. There is a mantapa in front of it on the east side. The pediment on the west side depicts Varuna riding three hamsas (sacred swans), the north side depicts Kubera, the south side depicts Yama riding a buffalo and the east side depicts Indra riding Airavata.

Mantapa

The mantapa is a covered hall that leads to the central sanctuary tower and is attached to the east facade of the central sanctuary tower.

Mantapa attached to the central sanctuary tower of the Banteay Srei Temple in Cambodia — North wall of the mantapa

The images above show the north and south facing walls of the mantapa. As you can see, the design is similar but the carvings are different. The he doorway in middle and leading to the doorway is a stone staircase on both sides. Guarding the entrance are the two squatting dwarapalakas (guardians of the door), who have human bodies and monkey faces.

In the north wall image, the staircase on the right leads to the east-facing entrance of the north sanctuary tower and is guarded by the bird-faced dwarapalakas. Likewise in the south wall image, the staircase on the left leads to the east-facing entrance of the south sanctuary tower, guarded by lion-faced dwarapalakas.

South Sanctuary Tower

The east-facing facade of the south sanctuary tower facades

The images show the east and south facing facade of the south sanctuary tower. The bottom pediment of the east facing facade depicts Shiva and his consort Parvati (a.k.a Uma) sitting on his vehicle Nandi. The lintel shows Indra riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. The doorway is beautifully decorated. On both sides of the door, devatas are guarding the door and in the front two dwarapalakas (guardians of the door) guard the door. The entrance to this structure is on this facade and the facades on the other three sides have false doors.

The bottom pediment and the lintel of the south facing facade depicts Yama, the god of death and justice, riding his vehicle male buffalo. The doorway with a false door is beautifully decorated. On both sides of the door, devatas are guarding the door.

Carved into the pediment is Kaala (time monster) devouring an elephant, and there is an unidentified deity on top of Kaala. The lintel also depicts Kaala.

North Sanctuary Tower

The images above shows the east and north facing facades of the north sanctuary tower. The bottom-most scene on the pediment most likely depicts Bhima killing Jarasandha, the king of Magadha, by splitting his body into two. The lintel shows Indra riding his vehicle Airavata, a three-headed elephant. This is the only entrance to the sanctuary tower and the other three sides have false doors. It is guarded by two squatting dwarapalakas (guardians of the door) who have human bodies and faces of mythical bird Garuda who is Vishnu’s vehicle. The door frame is beautifully decorated and it is flanked on either side by devatas standing on top of hamsas (swans).

Unlike the east-facing facade, the north-facing facade has a false door, which is decorated with beautiful artwork. On both sides of the door, beautifully sculpted devatas are guarding the door. The bottom pediment depicts Kubera carried by yakshas and the lintel shows Bhima killing Jarasandha, the king of Magadha, by splitting his body into two.

The image above shows the west-facing facade of the north sanctuary tower. The bottom pediment depicts Varuna riding three hamsas (swans) and the lintel depicts Kubera carried by a yaksha (Kubera’s vehicle is a man or yaksha). The doorway is beautifully decorated. The door is a false door. On both sides of the door, devatas are guarding the door.

Cambodia

Cambodia has a glorious history and rich heritage. Hinduism and Buddhism flourished here for many centuries. As a result, it is home to numerous religious monuments, including Angkor Wat, an architectural masterpiece.

The original name of Cambodia is Kamboja, which is the name of one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (great tribes) that existed in ancient India between the 6th and 4th century BCE. The original Kamboja tribes controlled the region around the Hindu Kush, a mountain range passing through present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is believed that some Kamboja tribes moved to Southeast Asia and were responsible for establishing a new Kamboja country.

Kamboja became Kampuchea in the Khmer language. When the French colonized Cambodia, Kampuchea became Cambodge. The current name of Cambodia is an English version of Cambodge. The dreaded Khmer Rouge made Kampuchea the official name, but after their defeat, the official name reverted to Cambodia.

Located in the Indochinese Peninsula, Cambodia borders Thailand to the west and northwest, Laos to the northeast and Vietnam to the east. It has a coastline of about 275 miles along the Gulf of Thailand. The Mekong River flows through Cambodia. It joins Tonlé Sap, a freshwater lake near Phnom Penh.

Places to Visit

Siem Reap

Siem Reap was the center of the Khmer civilization and home to numerous temples and monuments, including Angkor Wat, Bayon, Angkor Thom, Ta Prohm.

A view of the Angkor Wat Temple at sunrise

A view of the Bayon Temple from the southwest side

Lake Tonlé Sap

Located 30 miles south of Siem Reap, Tonlé Sap is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. Because of the seasonal changes, its size fluctuates. During the dry season, the lake shrinks as the water flows out of the lake into the rivers. During the wet season, the lake expands as the water flows into the lake from the rivers, and the water level rises as much as 30 feet. Thus, it acts as a natural reservoir.

The maximum dimensions of the lake are, length – 260 miles, width – 62 miles, and depth – 33 feet

A boat transporting goods in the Tonlé Sap Lake

Tonlé Sap is home to many floating villages inhabited mostly by the Vietnamese and Cham people. They earn their livelihood by fishing and crocodile farming.

In addition to floating houses, these villages have floating schools, shops, and even churches. See the images above.

Phnom Kulen National Park

The Phnom Kulen National Park consists of the Kulen mountains, Kbal Spean River and waterfalls.

Reclining Buddha in Preah Ang Thom, Cambodia

The Kbal Spean River is also known as the Sahasralinga River (River of one thousand lingas) because one thousand lingas are carved on its bed. A 16th-century pagoda named Preah Ang Thom is located on the way to Phnom Kulen. It is famous for the statue of Sleeping Buddha. The Banteay Srei Temple is on the way to the Kulen mountains.

Phenom Penh

Phenom Penh is capital of Cambodia and home to the National Museum of Cambodia, which houses cultural treasures of Cambodia.

Indian Influence

The cultural influence of India is very deep in Cambodia. Hinduism arrived in Cambodia sometime in the first century CE. Buddhism arrived much later.

The earliest record of Indian influence came from the Chinese historical texts, the rulers of the Kingdom of Funan worshiped Vishnu and Shiva.

History

The early accounts of Cambodian history originate from the Chinese historical texts, which include reports from travelers, traders, and diplomats who traveled to the region around the Mekong Delta.

Funan is the name given by the Chinese to the Indianised kingdom that ruled the region centered around the Mekong Delta from the first century CE. We don’t know what the locals called their kingdom, but there is some evidence to suggest that they called it Suvarna Bhoomi (Land of Gold). It is probable that suvarna became funan when it was translated into Chinese.

The Funan Kingdom lasted until the 6th century. Succeeding the Funan Kingdom was another Indianised kingdom called Chenla, which ruled for two more centuries before the mighty Khmer Empire rose from nowhere and lasted for six centuries.

Khmer Empire

Although Cambodia was referred to as a single kingdom in the Chinese texts, according to experts, it was an actually a collection of small kingdoms – more like the Greek city-states- who fought among themselves. There was no centralized power structure that controlled the kingdoms. The rise of the Khmer Empire changed all that.

The founding of the Empire

In the late eighth century, King Jayavarman II was ruling the kingdom known as Kambuja with its capital Indrapura situated in the Mekhong Delta. He swore allegiance to King Samaratungga of the Shylendra dynasty in the present-day Java. It is worth pointing out that King Samaratungga was known for initiating the building of Borobudur situated near present-day Yogyakarta in Indonesia.

It is believed that King Jayavarman II spent his early years in Java with the Shylendras, who were Buddhists, and got the first-hand experience of their governance and learned about their religion and culture.

Once he came back, he used skills that he learned in Java to create his own kingdom. He believed in his own greatness and eventually revolted against Shylendras and succeeded. In a grand ceremony at the Kulen mountains (Mahendraparvata) in 802 CE, King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence from the Shylendras, the rulers from the island of Java, and at the same time declared himself a Chakravarty (King of Kings or Emperor) of Khmer Empire.

King Jayavarman II started a new brand of Hinduism known as the Devaraja Cult. According to this belief system, the king is a devaraja (god-king in Sanskrit) who is divine and allowed to rule with divine authority. The Khmer people practiced their religion by mixing their ancestral belief system with Hindu traditions and philosophy.

Early Years

King Jayavarman II soon moved his capital to a place called Hariharalaya, which is present-day Roluos located 10 miles east of Siem Reap. He spent his years expanding his territory, and there no evidence to suggest that engaged in building monuments.

King Jayavarman II died in 835CE and posthumously conferred the title of Parameswara (Supreme God). After his death, his throne was passed to his son Jayavarman III (835-877), who not only engaged in expanding the Khmer territory but also started building many temples and monuments, the prominent among them is Bakong in Hariharalaya. King Jayavarman III (877-886) was succeeded by Indravarman I, who kept Hariharalaya as their capital and expanded the territory further.

State of Turmoil

The Khmer Empire was relatively peaceful until King Indravarman I died, but his death resulted in turmoil, which lasted for 3 years.

Rise of Yashovarman I

After the death of King Indravarman I, a violent power struggle ensued between the crown prince and his brother. Eventually, the crown price lost and his brother Yashovarman I (889-915) declared himself the king.

The power struggle led to the destruction of the palace in Hariharalaya. When Yashovarman I became the king, he decided to move the capital from Hariharalaya. He eventually built a new capital near Angkor Wat and named it Yashodharapura, and thus began the glorious history of Angkor, the central point of the Khmer Empire.

During his 26 years of rule, Yashovarman I commissioned many building projects, including many temples. His major accomplishments are the construction of East Barray reservoir and the temple on top of Phnom Bakheng, a hill near Angkor.

Gopura at the center of Bakeng Hill in Siem Reap, Cambodia — Gopura at the center of Bakheng Hill in Siem Reap, Cambodia

After the death Yashovarman I in 905 CE, his son Harshavarman I (905-923) succeeded him, who was followed by his other son Isvaravarman (923-928).

The death of Isvaravarman I threw the Khmer Empire into a state of turmoil again. The details of what happened after his death are sketchy. Isvaravarman I was succeeded by Jayavarman IV (928-941), who was neither his son nor relative but a king of a nearby principality who swore allegiance to the Khmer kings.

After the death of Jayavarman IV, there was a power struggle again, and eventually, Harshavarman II (941-944) succeeded him. Even though he was a son of Jayavarman IV, he was not the crown prince. Harshavarman II lasted only for three years and was succeeded by his cousin Rajendravarman (944-968).

During Rajendravarman’s 24 years rule, he consolidated the Khmer Empire and expanded its territory. After his death, his son Jayavarman V succeeded him.

Jayavarman V – The Intellectual King

By the time King Jayavarman V (968- 1001) came to power, the Khmer Empire has become very powerful and prosperous. He was an intellectual king who enjoyed the company of scholars. His 32-year rule was relatively peaceful.

He was responsible for building several temples in and around Angkor. However, Banteay Srei, a temple complex famous for its exceptional beauty, was built by Yajnavaraha, the chief priest of the court and a close confidant of the king.

A beautifully decorated pediment of the east gopura of the middle enclosure with a bas-relief depicting time monster Kala.

Golden Age

Suryavarman II – The Radical King

The power and influence of the Khmer Empire peaked during the reign of Suryavarman II (1113 – 1150), who is responsible for the greatest achievement of the Khmer civilization, Angkor Wat. In addition to Angkor Wat, he built many smaller temples, including Beng Mealea, Banteay Samre.

Diplomacy

Suryavarman II understood the importance of diplomacy. He established great relationships with the Chinese and Indians. He frequently sent emissaries with tributes to the Chinese emperor and kings of Chola dynasty in Southern India.

Military Campaigns

Suryavarman II was also an expansionist. He launched many military campaigns, not all of them ended successfully. He had a love-hate relationship with the neighboring Champa kingdom. They allied with him in some of the campaigns against the other neighboring kingdom in Vietnam.

Breaking with Tradition

King Suryavarman II was a radical king who broke with the traditions of his predecessors in many ways. Before he came to power, Shiva was the dominant god of the Hindu trinity and the kings mainly worshiped Shiva built numerous Shiva temples. King Suryavarman II broke with this tradition and made Vishnu the dominant god of the Trinity and became a follower of Vishnu. Angkor Wat was dedicated to Vishnu when he built it.

Bas-relief of King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia — King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat

King Suryavarman II is believed to have died between 1145 and 1150 CE during the military campaign against Champa. Towards the end of his reign, the Khmer empire became weaker as the building projects and the frequent military campaigns had a taken their toll on the economy of the empire.

After his death, King Suryavarman II was given the title Paramavishnuloka. It literally means the supreme world of Vishnu in Sanskrit, but likely meant he became the supreme leader of the world of Vishnu.

King Suryavarman II was succeeded by his cousin Daranindravarman II (1150 -1160) and a period of discord in the empire began.

Jayavarman VII – The Benevolent King

Jayavarman VII (1122-1218), son of Daranindravarman II, was one of the most powerful kings of the Khmer Empire. He came to power in 1181 after defeating the Champas, the arch-enemy of the Khmers who ransacked Yashodharapura. He asserted his power and united all the factions that were weakening the Khmers.

In his long reign of 37 years, he commissioned numerous Buddhist temples, including Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom and Bayon. As a devout Buddhist, he deeply cared about his subjects. He centralized his administration and built roads to connect the provinces of his kingdom. He built numerous hospitals and rest houses along the roads.

A smiling face carved on the upper level tower of the Bayon temple — A smiling face carved on the upper-level tower of the Bayon Temple

Religion

The majority of Cambodians are Buddhists. The official religion of Cambodia is Theravada Buddhism, which is one of the three main Buddhist traditions (the other two being Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna). The Theravada tradition started in Sri Lanka and spread all over Southeast Asia.

Although the majority of Cambodians are Buddhists, they worship some Hindu deities. Many Hindu and Buddhist monuments exist side by side in Cambodia. The reason being the Khmer rulers frequently switched the state religion between Hinduism and Buddhism.

The stone sculpture shown below is a Shiva Linga located near a Buddhist temple on the way to the Phnom Kulen mountain. Shiva Linga is an abstract representation of Shiva, one of the Hindu Trinity, and worshiped mainly by Hindus.

Note: Similar symbols are worshiped all over the world in ancient times. For example, Omphalos in Delphi, Greece.

Cham People

The Cham are an ethnic minority in Cambodia. The ancestors of the Cham people belonged to Champa, the ancient Hindu Kingdom that flourished in the present day Vietnam.

The Khmer and Cham were neighbors, but often rivals. The bas-relief in the Bayon Temple depicts a scene from the naval battle fought between the Khmer and Cham sometime in 1181 CE.

A section of the bas-relief on the lower level gallery of the Bayon temple depicting Khmer vs. Champs naval war

The majority of the Cham people in Cambodia are Muslim. A small number of Chams still practice Hinduism of their ancestors. Besides the Balinese Hindus, the Chams are the only group that practices Hinduism in Southeast Asia.

Language

Khmer is the official language and is spoken widely in Cambodia. It is written in the Khmer script, which is based on an archaic form of Grantha script known as Pallava Grantha used in South India.

Note: The Dravidian languages, such as Tamil and Malayalam, use the Grantha script.

Currency

The Riel is the currency of Cambodia. The ISO code for the Cambodian Riel is KHR and the symbol is ៛ (Unicode U+17DB).

The banknote denominations are: 50, 100, 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 100,000 riels. The coin denominations are: 50,100, 200, 500 riels.

Cambodian banknotes

The Cambodians banknotes reflect the pride in their heritage. The 2000 Riel bill displays a beautiful gopura from the Banteay Srei Temple, 1000 Riel bill shows the south entrance to Angkor Thom, 500 Riel bill proudly displays the front view of Angkor Wat.

The US Dollar is accepted as a currency in Cambodia. The exchange rate hovers around 4000 KHR to 1 US$.

Rural Cambodia

Cambodia is a scenic country. The majority of Cambodians engage in agriculture.

Lotus Farming

The lotus flower is considered sacred by the Hindus as well as Buddhists. It also plays a significant role in the Cambodian economy. The lotus plants are farmed commercially in Cambodia. The lotus farms like the ones shown below are a familiar scene in rural Cambodia.

The lotus flower, its fruit, and seeds are used in a variety of products. The fibers extracted from the stems of the lotus flower are used in textiles. The lotus seeds are edible and are also used in many commercial products, including balms and moisturizers.

Related Pages
– Angkor Wat, Angkor WatBas-Reliefs, Angkor Thom, Bayon, Ta Prohm, Banteay Srei
– Phnom Kulen, Tonlé Sap

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Mycenae

Mycenae is the site where a mysterious late bronze-age civilization rose from nowhere around 1900 BCE, flourished mostly in the Peloponnese peninsula, and then disappeared suddenly around 1100 BCE. Whatever little we know about the Mycenaean civilization is fascinating.The Mycenaean were a loose confederation of city-states, each of which was ruled by a king. The center of the Mycenaean civilization was the city-state of Mycenae. According to a myth, Perseus, a son of Zeus and Danae, founded Mycenae. Mycenae was also the capital of legendary King Agamemnon, who defeated Troy. Homer refers to the Mycenaean people as Achaeans.

The Mycenaean kingdoms were a loose confederation of city-states, each of which was ruled by a king. The center of the Mycenaean civilization was the city-state of Mycenae. According to a myth, Perseus, a son of Zeus and Danae, founded Mycenae. Mycenae was also the capital of legendary King Agamemnon, who defeated Troy. Homer refers to the Mycenaean people as Achaeans.

The Mycenaeans were believed to be Indo-European people, who migrated from the north and established settlements in Peloponnese. Although the Mycenaeans eventually conquered Minoans of Crete, they had an amicable relationship with the Minoans for a long time. Many aspects of the Mycenaean culture was influenced by the Minoans. When the Mycenaean disappeared abruptly in 1100 BCE, Greece plunged into dark ages.

Location

Mycenae is located on the Peloponnese peninsula 75 miles southwest of Athens, Greece.

Archaeological Site

The was site was discovered in the 1870s by the German businessman and amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann who was already famous for discovering the city of Troy.

The site is on a hill and the ruins are visible from a distance.

A view of the surroundings from the Mycenae citadel in Greece — A view of the surroundings from the Mycenae citadel

A view from the top of the Mycenae citadel — A view of the surroundings from the Mycenae citadel

Views from the Mycenae citadel

Cyclopean Wall

A massive wall known as the Cyclopean Wall surrounded the Mycenae citadel. Legend has it that Perseus, the founder of Mycenae, employed Cyclopes, mythical giants from Asia, to build this wall to protect the citadel. The Cyclopean Wall owes its name to them.

The image shows a section of the Cyclopean wall, built with irregularly shaped stones of different sizes without using mortar or cement. As you can see, the stones fit perfectly. Considered an engineering marvel, it has withstood the ravages of time, including earthquakes. This wall was the model for polygonal walls built later in Greece. The Polygonal Wall in Delphi is an example.

Cyclopean wall at the Mycenae citadel — The cyclopean wall at the Mycenae citadel

Lion Gate

Built around 13th century BCE, the Lion Gate is the entrance to the citadel at Mycenae and attached to it is the Cyclopean Wall. The sculpture above the lintel of the gate has a pillar flanked by two headless lions. It is believed that the original sculpture had the heads of lions made of metal.

Pausanias (110 -180 CE), a Greek traveler and historian, wrote about the Lion Gate in his book, Descriptions of Greece, which was used to identify Mycenae citadel by the archaeologists.

Grave Circle A

Grave Circle A is the site of a cemetery located inside the Mycenae citadel. The cemetery is enclosed by two rows of circular walls formed by stone slabs. When this site was excavated, six shaft graves with the bodies of 19 people, including men, women, and children were found. Each grave had a mound and stelae. Also found in the grave are funerary objects, including a golden death mask, gold and silver cups, rings, buttons, bracelets, and daggers.

Grave Circle in Mycenae Citadel in Greece — Grave Circle A

Grave Circle A

Heinrich Schliemann, who discovered the cemetery in the 1870s, believed that the legendary King Agamemnon was buried there. However, the site is dated 17th or 16th century BCE, which is well before the time of King Agamemnon. Experts are not sure who was buried in this site but believe that the bodies belong to high-ranking people from the Mycenae civilization, probably the royalty.

Mycenae Palace

The Mycenae palace is located at the highest point on the Acropolis. The ruins visible today belong to the building constructed in the 13th century BCE. Only the foundations and floor paving of some rooms have survived. The archaeological evidence suggests that the site likely had many variations of the building before the current one.

The palace complex had a large courtyard and a megaron (meeting hall). The megaron consisted of a portico, prodomos (anteroom or open vestibule), and the main hall, whose principal space (known as domos) consisted of a circular hearth and four columns supporting the roof. See the model of the palace below.

People gathered in the megaron to conduct palace business. It was destroyed, most likely by fire, in the late 13th century BCE, and was rebuilt in the 12th century.

Ruins of the Palace at Mycenae in Greece — Ruins of the Mycenae Palace

A wall of the palace located on the acropolis of the Mycenae citadel in Greece — Ruins of the Mycenae Palace

Mycenae palace

Cistern

A large underground cistern supplied water to the Mycenae citadel. The image below shows the entrance to the tunnel that led to a large underground cistern which received water collected from a natural spring through underground aqueducts.

A cistern in the Mycenae citadel in Peloponnese, Greece — Entrance to the underground cistern

Mycenae cistern

North Gate

The north gate is the second gate of the citadel, and the path from this gate led to the palace megaron. Built around 1250 BCE, the north gate had double wooden doors with a sliding bolt to lock them.

Agamemnon Tomb (Treasury of Atreus)

Located on the Panagitsa hill near the Mycenae citadel and dated between 1350 and 1330 BCE, the Agamemnon Tomb is a massive dome-like structure with an entrance similar to the Lion Gate. It owes its name to its discoverer Heinrich Schliemann, who assumed that the tomb was built for King Agamemnon of the Trojan war fame. However, there is no evidence to suggest that the tomb indeed belonged to him. In fact, it was built well before his time.

The Agamemnon Tomb is a bee-hive type of a tomb. Also known as the Tholos tombs, the bee-hive tombs were prevalent in the Peloponnese Peninsula in the late bronze age. They get their name because of the dome-structure and their resemblance to the beehive.

This monument was referred to as Treasury of Atreus by the Greek traveler Pausanias who visited this site in the 2nd century CE.

Entrance to the tomb

It has a remarkable entrance with a long passageway and a doorway similar to the Lions Gate in design. The lintel above the door is a massive stone weighing about 120 tons. The triangular space above the lintel is empty but likely housed some sculptures.

Passageway

The passageway is long with a wall on each side. The shape of most of the stones on the wall is rectangular, but there are some polygonal stones as well. The stones were cut precisely to fit the wall perfectly, and despite the differences in their sizes and shapes, it appears no mortar was used to bind them. As you can see in the image below, some of the stones on these walls are massive.

Chamber

The chamber of the Agamemnon Tomb is a dome with a diameter of 14.5 meters and a height of 13 meters. Considering the time period in which it was built, the construction of the dome was considered a great engineering feat.

Roof of Tomb of Agamemnon near the Mycenae citadel in Peloponnese, Greece — Roof of Agamemnon Tomb

Interior of Tomb of Agamemnon located near the Mycenae citadel in Peloponnese, Greece — Roof of Agamemnon Tomb

Inside the chamber of the Tomb of Agamemnon

Related Pages
– Minoan Civilization
– Athens, Olympia, Delphi, Meteora, Crete, Greek Islands, Greece
– Ephesus

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Indonesia

Minoan

The Minoan civilization is named after Minos, the legendary King of Crete. It is the oldest civilization in Europe, which flourished from 2600 to 1100 BCE in Crete and nearby islands. The island of Crete is at the crossroads of three continents: Asia, Europe, and Africa. The Minoan civilization flourished because they were skilled seafarers and were able to trade with the cities in these three continents. It is contemporary with the Indus Valley civilization that was flourishing in the Indian sub-continent, but no evidence of trade between them has been found.

Minoan Civilization

The Minoan civilization is named after Minos, the legendary King of Crete. It is the oldest civilization in Europe, which flourished from 2600 to 1100 BCE in Crete and nearby islands.

The island of Crete is at the crossroads of three continents: Asia, Europe, and Africa. The Minoan civilization flourished because they were skilled seafarers and were able to trade with the cities in these three continents. It is contemporary with the Indus Valley civilization that was flourishing in the Indian sub-continent, but no evidence of trade between them has been found.

Language and Writing System

The language spoken by the Minoans was believed to be closer to Sanskrit than Greek. The early Minoans used the hieroglyphic writing system, but most of their writing was in Linear A, which is yet to be deciphered. However, the similar script (i.e., Linear B) was used by the Mycenaean culture has been deciphered, which led the experts to believe that the language spoken by the Minoans was a lot different from the one spoken by the Greeks.

Religion

Because Linear A script is yet to be deciphered, very little is known about the Minoan religion and its practices. Minoans seemed to have worshiped female deities and their religious symbols included sacred horns of the bull and double-axe.

Human migration and travelers from Asia, Egypt and Mediterranean had a strong influence on the Minoan religion. For the same reason, the Minoan society was multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, therefore, it is believed that the Minoans practiced different religions.

Bull Cult

Interactions with other cultures had a lot of influence on Minoan religious practices, especially bull worship. Many cultures contemporary with Minoans worshiped the bull because it was considered a symbol of fertility.
Because the bull was part of Minoan religious ceremonies, experts believe that the bull cult was one of their religions.

Legend of Minotaur

According to Greek mythology, Minos the King of Crete lived in the Palace at Knossos where he had built a labyrinth to confine Minotaur, a creature with the head of a bull and body of a man.

Minotaur is an offspring of Minos’s wife and a bull, which was sent by Poseidon at the request of Minos during the power struggle with his brothers. Minotaur had a head of a bull and body of a man and devoured humans for food. King Minos ordered his architect to build a labyrinth in order to confine Minotaur.

A legend tells how the Minotaur was killed. According to this legend, King Minos’s son was killed by jealous Athenians when he won the Pan Athenian games in Athens. To avenge his son’s death, King Minos sent a huge naval force to wage a war against Athenians and defeated them. The defeated Athenians made a deal with King Minos to send able-bodied young men and women from Athens to Knossos to be devoured by Minotaur. After many young men were killed, an Athenian named Theseus killed Minotaur and set Athens free.

Akrotiri

Akrotiri is a major archaeological site on the island of Santorini where buildings and artifacts belonging to the Minoan civilization were found. Akrotiri was a city that had well laid out roads, houses, storage places, and sophisticated water management systems. It was most likely a trading center.

Although Akrotiri did not have a palace complex like the Palace at Knossos, artifacts recovered from this site were similar to ones from Crete. These included numerous frescoes, Pithoi jars and pottery, and some of them were well-preserved because the site was covered by volcanic ash.

Collapse of the Minoan Civilization

A massive volcanic eruption occurred in 1646 BCE at the height of Minoan civilization destroyed the Island of Thera, which was located just 60 miles from Crete. Experts believe this cataclysmic event most likely contributed to the demise of the Minoan civilization. The volcano resulted in earthquakes and a massive tsunami that swept away the Palace at Knossos and other Minoan settlements in Crete. Although the Minoan civilization survived for another 50 years, weakened Minoans could not defend an invasion by the Mycenaeans, who eventually occupied Crete and ended the Minoan civilization in 1420 BCE.

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Pre-Inca

Ancient Cultures of Peru

Before the Inca arrived on the scene, the Andean region was home to many flourishing cultures. Some of them flourished for a few hundred years and then declined, but none of them grow up to the level of the Inca Empire in size and sophistication.

The Inca Empire expanded quickly by taking control of the territories around the Andean region. When the Inca conquered a culture, their culture and practices got assimilated into the Inca culture. Unlike the Spanish, the Inca were accepting of the religions and traditions of the conquered culture. They utilized the expertise from the conquered people to build a bigger and mightier empire.

Unlike their northern neighbors like the Maya, none of the ancient cultures in South America had a writing system. To differentiate a culture in such cases, archaeologists typically use the style of pottery created by that culture. Because people needed pots for many day-to-day tasks, such as cooking, eating and drinking, there is an abundance of pottery in the archaeological sites. Pottery provides a glimpse into their world as pots tell us about their lifestyle, religious beliefs and rituals, and relationship with nature and animals.

Wari (Huari)

The Wari culture flourished from 500 CE to 1000 CE in the south-central and coastal region of Peru. Experts believe that the Wari people were the inventors of the terrace agriculture, which the Inca later improved by employing new techniques, including the use of aqueducts in water management.

The Wari also pioneered the concept of centralized administration and built a network of roads to help control their empire. The Incas later used this network and extended it to govern their empire from a central place.

The Wari borrowed many aspects of their religion and rituals from the Tiwanaku culture that flourished in southern Peru and Bolivia. They worshiped the same staff god – which is an iconographic figure holding a staff in each hand – as Tiwanaku. The staff god later became Viracocha in the Inca religion.

Pottery from the Wari culture on display at Museo Larco — Wari Pottery on display at Museo Larco

Nazca

Famous for their geoglyphs known as the Nazca Lines, the Nazca culture flourished from 100 CE to 800 CE in the southern coast of Peru. The Nazca also left some amazing pottery that was beautiful and expressive.

The image below shows a ceramic drum most likely used as a funerary object.

Moche (Mochica)

The Moche culture flourished in northern Peru from 100 CE to 700CE. It is also known as Mochica because it is one of the languages they spoke. The Moche were contemporary with the Nazca culture in the south.

Not much is known about the religion Moche practiced. They mostly worshiped a moon goddess and considered the moon was more powerful than the sun, although they had temples for both the moon and sun.

There is enough archaeological evidence of Moche engaging in human sacrifice as a ritual. The Moche seemed to have sacrificed their enemy combatants and ritually consumed their blood. There is no evidence of them sacrificing women and children,

Experts are not sure about the reasons for the demise of the Moche culture. Some of the reasons attributed to their decline are earthquakes, drought, flooding, and the El Niño phenomenon. In a couple of hundred years after their demise, the Chimu culture arose in the same area and borrowed many ideas from the Moche culture.

Arts and Crafts

The Moche are known for their artistic expression, especially in their pottery. Moche pottery is one of the most beautiful and artistic potteries in the world. Their pots are multi-colored and expressive, and they depict everyday life, rituals, deities, animals.

Moche Warrior on display at Museo Larco — Moche Warrior pot on display at Museo Larco

Moche Owl God on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru

Moche pottery depicting sacrifice on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru

Moche deer hunt pottery

Moche pottery on display at Museo Larco

Erotic Pottery

One of the unusual aspects of Moche pottery is the depiction of explicit sex acts, including sex between a man and woman, a man and man, and between animals. It appears that the Moche society was never shy about their sexuality. Only the sculptures of Khajuraho, India are more explicit than the erotic pottery of Moche.

Moche human erotic pottery

Moche animal erotic pottery

Moche erotic pottery on display at Museo Larco

Ornaments

Moche gold head dress on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru

Moche gold ear pieces on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru

Moche sculptural nose ornaments on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru

Moche ornaments on display at Museo Larco

Lambayeque (Sican)

The Lambayenque culture, also known as the Sican culture, flourished on the northern coast of Peru between 750 CE and 1375 CE. They seem to have inherited many concepts from both the Wari and Moche cultures. Unlike the Wari and Moche, the Lambayenque were not expansionist and their kingdom consisted of loosely coupled cities. The Chimu culture eventually conquered and assimilated them into their culture.

The image below shows the funerary attire consisting of a shirt and a loincloth belonging to the Lambayenque culture.

Funerary clothes from Lambayenqu culture on display at Museo Larco

Chimu

The Chimu culture succeeded the Moche and flourished in northern Peru from 1000 CE until they were conquered by the Inca in 1470 CE. Unlike the Inca, the Chimu worshiped the moon and considered it more powerful than the sun, an idea they inherited from the Moche. When the Inca conquered the Chimu and imposed their religion on them, there was discontent among the Chimu people. The Spanish exploited this discontent to their advantage.

The Chimu people spoke Yunga and Mochica, both of which are now extinct. The Chimu created new cities and the most important among them was their capital Chan Chan.

Arts and Crafts

The Chimu are also well-known for their arts and crafts. There is some similarity between Moche and Chimu pottery. Moche pottery is multi-colored and expressive whereas Chimu pottery is mostly black and mass-produced as the Chimu were more technologically advanced than the Moche.

Besides pottery, the Chimu culture was famous for its expertise in metal works, especially working with metals like gold and silver. The images below show the fine gold jewelry created by the Chimu artisans.

Chimu gold head dress on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru

Chimu gold attire on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru

Chimu gold jewelry on display at Museo Larco

The image below shows a silver bowl with birds (most likely pelicans) embossed on the outer surface. This bowl was likely used by the Chimu for ceremonial purposes.

Chimu ceremonial silver vessel displayed at Museo Larco — Chimu ceremonial silver vessel on display at Museo Larco

The Chimu also knew how to create fine textiles from cotton, llama, alpaca and vicuña yarns.

When the Inca conquered the Chimu, they realized the value of the Chimu artisans and moved some of them to their capital Cuzco.

Just like the Moche, there is some evidence to suggest that the Chimu were also engaged in rituals of human sacrifice. But unlike the Moche, they seem to have sacrificed children to please various gods.

Cupisnique

The Cupisnique culture flourished between 1500 BCE to 500 BCE in northern Peru. The Moche culture succeeded Cupisnique and borrowed many ideas from them.

The image below shows a 3000-year-old stone sculpture of a female deity believed to belong to the Cupisnique culture. This deity was found in the Temple of Pacopampa in the Cajamarca region, which is located on the northern highlands of Peru.

Cupisnique goddess on display at Museo Larco

In 2009, a team of Japanese archaeologists discovered the tomb of a sophisticated woman in the Temple of Pacopampa. Now known as The Lady of Pacopampa, she had her skull deformed deliberately at childhood and buried with gold earrings, seashell necklaces, and ceramic pottery, which led many experts to believe that she must have been a high-ranking person in the society, probably the queen or a high priestess.

Paracas

The Paracas culture flourished from 800 BCE to 100 BCE in the Ica region of Peru. They are well-known for textiles and water management. Paracas textiles typically used alpaca yarn. The image below shows a 2500-year-old Paracas mantle with beautiful embroidery.

Saksaywaman near Cuzco, Peru

Kilke

The Kilke culture flourished from 900 CE to 1200 CE in the Cuzco region of Peru. Not much is known about them. There is little pottery or other artifacts attributed to them. However, experts believe that they built the massive structure in Saksaywaman near Cuzco. See the image below.

Because of its structure and the style, historians widely believe Saksaywaman was a fortress and not a temple. Some of the stones used in the structure were so massive that they weighed between 90 to 120 tons. Stones were of different sizes and shapes but were perfectly fused together like a Jigsaw puzzle. It is not fully understood how this structure was constructed by the people who did not have sophisticated tools or machinery.

Saksaywaman near Cuzco, Peru — Saksaywaman

When the Inca conquered the Kilke, they expanded the fortress further. After the Spanish conquered the Inca, they destroyed as much as they can and reused the stones to build other structures such as churches.

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Olympia

Olympia – The Birthplace of the Olympic Games

Located on the Elis region of the Peloponnese peninsula,Olympia in ancient times was a sanctuary famous for starting the tradition of the Olympic Games. The first games were held in 776 BCE, and they were continued to be held every four years until the 4th century CE. The modern Olympic Games were modeled after these games.

In addition to the Olympic Games, Olympia was known for two magnificent temples: Temple of Zeus and Temple of Hera. The statue of Zeus, which was housed in the Temple of Zeus, is considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

The Sanctuary at Olympia is also known as the Sanctuary of Altis. There are a lot of similarities between the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi and the Sanctuary of Altis. Like Delphi, Olympia was a religious sanctuary and housed temples, votive buildings, statues, treasuries, and administrative buildings. Both the sanctuaries held games every four years. Unlike Delphi, which is on a mountain slope, Olympia is on a level space.

The excavation of Olympia started in 1829 by the French and continued by the Germans in 1875. The excavation was then taken up by the Greek Government in the 20th century and is still continuing.

The archaeological site of Olympia currently has ruins of ancient structures, some of which are restored. The Olympia Archaeological Museum is located near the site and has on display many precious artifacts recovered from the site.

Location

Olympia is north of the Alpheios River and south of Mount Kronos. The Kladeos River, a tributary of Alpheios, runs through this area.

Olympic Games

In ancient Greece, the Olympic Games was one of the four in Panhellenic Games held at an interval of four years at Olympia. The other three were: Pythian Games, Nemean Games, and Isthmian Games. The Olympic Games was the most important one and used to measure time in years. An Olympiad is a period of four years in which the Olympic Games was held in year one, Nemean Games and Isthmian Games were held in year two and four and Pythian Games was held in year three.

The Olympic Games started as a festival honoring Zeus in which a series of competitions, including foot race, javelin throw, wrestling and chariot race, were held between the representatives of Greek city-states. As the Olympic Games gained popularity, it lost its religious character and became an athletic and social event. Because Greek city-states frequently fought among themselves, an Olympic truce was declared to temporarily stop all warfare during the games.

The winners were crowned with olive leaf wreaths and winning the competition was very prestigious for a city-state. Only men with proven Greek ancestry were allowed to compete in the games. Women were neither allowed to compete nor watch the events. Politics became part of the games as city-states asserted their dominance over their rivals when they won the competitions.

Olympic Stadium

The ancient stadium at Olympia is located on the east side of the sanctuary and had the capacity to hold about 45,000 spectators.

Entrance

The stadium had an arched entrance called Krypte on the western side of the stadium facing the sanctuary. Only the athletes and the officials were allowed to use this entrance. This entrance was built around the late 3rd century BCE.

The images below show the arched way at the Olympia archaeological site.

Race Track

The race track had stone markers at the starting and ending lines. The length of the track between the starting and ending markers is 192.27 meters and the width is 28.50 meters. A stone ridge ran along the perimeter of the track.

Stadium with the race track where the ancient Olympic Games were held

Starting line marker embedded on the race track

Ancient race track

The stadium had permanent stone seats only for the judges and officials. It may have had wooden benches for the spectators.

Temple of Zeus

As the name suggests, this massive temple was built to honor Zeus, the king of the Greek gods. The construction of this temple began in 472 BCE and completed in 457 BCE, and was the main attraction of Olympia for about 800 years.

Ruins of Temple of Zeus

The remaining column of Temple of Zeus

The ruins of the Temple of Zeus

Architecture

The Temple of Zeus is a Doric style building with east-west orientation with the following dimensions: height 68 feet, width 95 and length 230 feet. The temple had three areas, a porch in the front, similar arrangement in the back and a cella in the middle. The temple stood on a platform with three unequal steps.

It had 6 columns each on the front and back and 13 columns on each side. Located above the columns were Doric friezes with 12 metophes. On the front and back of the temple, there were pediments located on top of the frieze. The lion-headed water sprouts ran along the temple. The figures on the pediments were identified by Pausanias, the Greek historian who visited the Temple of Zeus in the 2nd century BCE.

East Pediment

According to Pausanias, the east pediment on the Temple of Zeus depicted the chariot race that was about to begin between Oenomaos and Pelops. Oenomaos was the king of Pisa and Pelops was a suitor of Hippodameia, the daughter of Oenomaos.

At the center of the pediment is Zeus observing the chariot race, and was flanked by two heroes. The figures at the two ends represent the two rivers of Olympia, Alpheios and Kladeos.

The images below show the statues that were restored from the fragments excavated near the Temple of Zeus and are now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.

Sculptures from the east pediment of Temple of Zeus at Olympia

Statues from the east pediment of the Temple of Zeus

Statues of an old seer and two spectators originally mounted on the eastern pediment of Temple of Zeus

Statues of an old seer and two spectators from the eastern pediment of Temple of Zeus

Remnants of east pediment statues

West Pediment

The theme of the west pediment is the fight between the Lapiths and Centaurs. The restored structures portray the abduction of the Lapith women by the Centaurs.

At the center of this pediment is Apollo who is flanked by two heroes, Theseus and Peirithoos.

Sculptures on the west pediment of Temple of Zeus portraying the fight between the Centaurs and Lapiths

Statue of Apollo in the middle of the west pediment of Temple of Zeus at Olympia

Sculptures on the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus portraying the fight between the Centaurs and Lapiths

Remnants of west pediment statues

Statue of Zeus

A huge chryselephantine (made of ivory and gold) statue of Zeus stood inside the Temple of Zeus. The statue of Zeus is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although no fragments of this statue were ever discovered, many ancient coins of that period show different aspects of it. The Greek historian Pausanias, who visited Olympia in the 2nd century CE, also describe the statue.

The statue had Zeus seated on a throne carved with elaborate decorations that included the statues of other Greek gods Apollo, Artemis, and Nike. It was 42 feet high and 21 feet wide.

The statue was sculpted by the famous Athenian sculptor Phidias whose workshop was discovered near the temple. He started its construction in 432 BCE and took 12 years to complete it.

The statue was taken to Constantinople (currently Istanbul, Turkey) for safekeeping in 392 CE, but ironically destroyed in a fire 60 years later.

Destruction

The Byzantine Emperor Theodosius ordered it to be closed in 426 CE because of pagan practices. The temple was burnt and what was left was later destroyed in an earthquake in the 6^th century.

Temple of Hera

Built around 590 BCE, this Doric style temple is one of the oldest temples in Greece and is located on the north-west corner of Altis. It is dedicated to Hera, the wife of Zeus and the queen of Greek gods.

The Temple of Hera was built more than a century before the construction of the Temple of Zeus during the period when God was considered a woman. The temple had three distinct areas: Pronaos (Front Porch), Cella (Inner Chamber), and Opisthodomos (Back Porch).

It had 6 columns each on the front and back and 16 column on each side. The columns were wooden initially but were gradually replaced by columns made from stones.

Statue of female head excavated near the Temple of Hera - on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum — Olympia: Statue of female head excavated near the Temple of Hera

According to Pausanias, who visited this site in the 2^nd century CE, the cella had the statue of Hera on the throne and the statue of Zeus standing next to her.

The image shows the head of a woman excavated near the Temple of Hera. Experts believe that the head belongs to the statue of Hera erected inside the temple.

The opisthodomos of the temple had a Chest of Kypselos, which was made of wood, ivory, and gold and decorated with mythological scenes.

The temple was remodeled many times. The Romans used it as a museum to stores treasures of the sanctuary. The marble statue of Hermes carrying the infant Dionysus sculpted by Praxiteles was one of them.

Zeus Holding Ganymedes

Statue of Zeus holding Ganymede on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum — Statue of Zeus holding Ganymede

The statue depicting Zeus carrying Ganymedes is on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum. It is made of terracotta and dated between 480 and 470 BCE, and is most likely an acroterion (apex or end piece of a pediment) of a temple.

Philippeion

Philippeion was built by Philip II, the king of Macedonia and the father of Alexander the Great, to commemorate his victory over Thebans and Athenians in the Battle of Chaeronea in 335 BCE. Since Philip II died two years after the construction of this monument started, his son Alexander the Great most likely completed it.

This majestic monument was circular-shaped with a diameter of 15.3 meters and had two concentric rings of columns. The outer ring had 18 Ionic style columns, and the inner ring had Corinthian style half-columns. The roof was made of marble with a bronze poppy head. Inside the monument, it housed the statues of Philip II and his family that included his wife, parents, and son Alexander the Great.

Votive Offerings

As the Olympic Games became more popular, the sanctuary of Olympia became very prominent resulting in people from various city-states sending votive offerings to Olympia. The site was adorned with statues in different places. Just like Delphi, Olympia also had treasuries built by various city-states to deposit their votive offerings.

Nike of Paionios

A beautifully sculpted marble statue of Nike stood on a pillar near the Temple of Zeus. According to the inscription on the base of this statue, it was dedicated by the Messenians and Naupactians to commemorate their victory against the Lacedaemonians (Spartans ?) in the Peloponnesian war. The statue was sculpted using Parian marble by Paionois of Mendi around 421 BCE. It was sculpted to give an impression that Nike the goddess of victory was triumphantly descending from Mount Olympos.

Nike of Paionios on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum

The statue of Nike on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum

The statue is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum and was restored from the fragments excavated near the Temple of Zeus.

Hermes of Praxiteles

The statue of Hermes carrying infant Dionysos was sculpted by the famous sculptor Praxiteles. This masterpiece is dated 330 BCE and was a votive offering placed on opisthodomos of the Temple of Hera.

Statue of Hermes of Praxiteles

Statue of Hermes of Praxiteles – Rear View

The statue of Hermes on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum

Treasury of the Megarians

Roman Period

Romans added many new buildings to the sanctuary, including Nymphaion, and continue the tradition of the Olympic Games. During the Roman period, the games were open to all citizens of the Roman Empire.

Nymphaeum (Nymphaion)

Located near the Temple of Hera, Nymphaion (also known as the Exedra of Herodes Atticus) was a magnificent two-story semi-circular building that housed a fountain. It was built in 150 CE by Herodes Atticus, a Greek aristocrat who became a Roman senator, to honor of his wife Regilla. Placed inside the niches on the walls of this building are the statues that included the statues of Roman Emperors Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Pius, and Herodes Atticus and his family members. At each end of the building, there were two circular Naiskos (small temples).

Ruins of Nymphaion (Nymphaeum) in Olympia, Greece

Naiskos at the Nymphaion

Ruins of Nymphaion

This building served as the water reservoir for the sanctuary during the Roman period. An aqueduct brought the water from a spring a few miles away and stored in a semi-circular basin located in front of the building. The water was then distributed to the rest of the sanctuary through pipes.

Marble bull - A votive offering at the Nymphaion — Marble bull – A votive offering at the Nymphaion

The image shows the marble statue of a bull that was a votive offering at the Nymphaion and is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.

Roman Era Statues

During the Roman era, statues of emperors and other important people of the empire were erected in Metroon, which was a temple of the mother goddess. The statues were eventually moved to the Temple of Hera for safe keeping. During the excavation, many of these statues were discovered inside the ruins of the Temple of Hera. These statues were restored and put on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum. Here are some of them:

Agrippina Minor

The statue of Agrippina Minor, who was Emperor Nero’s mother, was discovered on a wall in the Temple of Hera.

Poppaea Sabina

Poppaea Sabina (30 -65 CE) was the second wife of Emperor Nero. This statue was also discovered on a wall in the Temple of Hera.

Emperor Hadrian

The statue of Roman Emperor Hadrian (117 – 138 CE) was discovered in the Temple of Hera and is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.

As a supporter and admirer of Greece, Emperor Hadrian toured Greece in 124 CE and committed vast resources for numerous engineering projects, including aqueducts, and rebuilding temples and monuments throughout Greece.

Notice the tunic worn by Hadrian in the statue. His finely carved tunic symbolizes fusion of Greek and Roman cultures and represents his world-view.

At the center of the tunic is Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom and war, standing on top of a she-wolf with two sucklings, and flanked by two figures with wings believed to represent Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Above the wolf and to the right of Athena is an Owl and to the left is a snake standing upright. Goddess Athena represents Greece and the she-wolf suckling the twins, Romulus and Remus, symbolizes Rome as it is based on the legend of the founding of Rome.

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Delphi

Located on the slopes of Mount Parnassos in central Greece, Delphi was best known for its oracle in ancient times. Ancient Greeks treated this site with great reverence as it overlooks a spectacular and awe-inspiring landscape. Delphi was unique in that it was not a city-state but a religious center that was administered by an alliance of Greek city-states. Although Greek city-states fought among themselves, they were united in developing this site.

Fascinated by the mystery of the oracle, people have been flocking to Delphi from all over the world for more than a century. The archaeological site of Delphi, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, provides a glimpse of its past glory. The ruins at this site include the Temple of Apollo, Treasury of the Athenians, a theater and stadium.

Location

History

In ancient times, Greeks considered Delphi as the navel of the earth. According to Greek mythology, Zeus wanted to find the navel of the earth, which in other words the center of the earth. To accomplish this task he sent two eagles, one to the east and the other to the west. The eagles crossed their paths at Delphi making it the navel of the earth. The name Delphi is derived from delphys which in archaic Greek means womb and refers to the womb of the Mother Earth.

The earliest known human settlement in Delphi dates back to the Neolithic period (around 4000 BCE). Later, the Mycenaean civilization established a settlement here in the 2nd millennium BCE.

Delphi was initially famous for the worship of goddess Gaia (Mother Earth), and a temple existed for this goddess at the site of the Temple of Apollo.

Later the cult of Apollo took roots in Delphi replacing the worship of Gaia. This cult grew out of a legend based on Apollo’s slaying of an evil python who was a son of Gaia and was roaming Mount Parnassos creating havoc.

The building of the Sanctuary of Apollo started in the 8th century BCE and reached its peak in the 6th century BCE when it became the most important religious center for Greeks.

Delphi was not a city-state, but a protectorate of Amphictyonia (Amphictyonic League), an alliance of Greek tribes from Sterea (south-central Greece) and Thessaly, which controlled it from 7th to 4th century BCE. The Delphi area was considered autonomous. The Amphictyonic League administered it and chose the priests of the Temple of Apollo.

However, in 356 BCE, an alliance of Phocians, Athenians, and Spartans took control of this sanctuary. Their control was short-lived because King Philip of Macedonia defeated them and handed over the site back to the Amphictyonia alliance. He interfered again in 338 BCE and took control of the site himself.

Roman Period

The Roman Empire took control of this site in 191 BCE, but let the religious ceremonies, including the practice of foretelling by the oracle, to continue. Many high-ranking Romans regularly consulted the oracle. Emperor Hadrian was believed to have visited Delphi and consulted the oracle. However, the Roman general Sulla plundered this site in 86 BCE to finance his wars in Greece.

Decline

Although the practice of foretelling by the oracle continued for a couple of centuries, it gradually started losing its prominence. The final death knell came from the Christians who wanted to end the pagan practices. In 394 BCE, Byzantine Emperor Theodosius issued an edict abolishing the oracle and other pagan practices at Delphi and other sanctuaries all over the Roman empire. Even after the oracle was abolished, Delphi continued to thrive for another three centuries. As Christianity became prominent, Christians started flourishing in this area, and there was even a Basilica. Delphi was eventually abandoned in 6th or 7th century CE.

Pythian Games

Starting 586 BCE, Delphi hosted the Pythian Games every four years to celebrate Apollo’s victory, and it was second only to the Olympic Games in importance. The winner of a game received the laurels picked from the Temple of Apollo. They continued until 424 CE.

Sanctuary of Apollo

The Sanctuary of Apollo includes the Temple of Apollo and the Sacred Way which is the path from the entrance to this temple. Above the temple, there is a theater and a stadium where the Pythian Games were held.

Sacred Way

The Sacred Way was the path leading from the entrance to the Sanctuary of the Apollo to the Temple of the Apollo. This sanctuary was visited by the people from various Greek states to ask questions of the oracle.

Because of the slope, the path was zigzag with a few stairs in some places but was well paved. The Greek city-states competed against each other by building structures on either side of the path. Many city-states had treasury buildings which were used as the place to deposit their votive offerings by their citizens.

Roman Agora

A typical ancient Greek city-state had an agora, which means meeting place in Greek. It is equivalent to a modern city-square or plaza. Because the people gathered in the agora, merchants set up shops in and around the agora to sell a variety of goods and services. Because of these shops, the agora became synonymous with the marketplace.

Once the Romans took control of Delphi, they remodeled the existing agora sometime in the 4th century CE. It became known as the Roman Agora because the remodeled buildings appeared more Roman than Greek.

The Roman Agora is the first stop on the Sacred Way to the Temple of Apollo. Just like any other temples scenes around the world, this is where the pilgrims bought the votive offerings and proceeded to the temple.

Temple of Apollo

The Temple of Apollo was the most important and dominant structure in the Sanctuary of Apollo. According to a Greek myth, this is where the Omphalos (navel of the earth) stone was found.

The Temple of Apollo was built and remodeled many times at the same site. The first temple was built by the legendary architects Trofonios and Agamedes in the 7th century and was destroyed by a fire in 548 BCE. It was replaced in 525 BCE by a bigger temple, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 373 BCE. The third temple was built with almost the same plan and dimensions of its predecessor in 320 BCE.

Surviving columns of the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, Greece — The Temple of Apollo

Oracle of Delphi

Although the oracle existed during the Gaia times, it became prominent after the cult of Apollo gained importance. The Oracle of Apollo was a priestess called Pythia whom the people believed was a mouthpiece of Apollo.

The Oracle sat on a tripod in the inner sanctum of the temple inhaling vapors emanating from a fissure in front of her. According to a myth, the body of the python slain by Apollo fell into this fissure and vapors emanated from the decomposing body of the python. Intoxicated by vapors, Sybil the first oracle went into a trance and answered questions and foretold the future.

Young women from the nearby villages were chosen as priestesses of the temple and one of them would officiate as the oracle. Answers given by the oracle were vague and cryptic, but the priests at the Temple of Apollo interpreted them for the people.

Architecture

The Temple of Apollo is Doric in style with 6 columns on the front and 15 on the sides.

The east pediment depicted a scene when Apollo when he arrived with sister Artemis and mother Leto. The west pediment depicted Gigantomachy, which is the story of the giant’s battle with Olympian gods. The sculptures on the pediment used marble from the island of Paros, and Athenian sculptors Praxias and Androsthenes helped to build them. Only a few fragments of the pediments survived and are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.

The seat of the oracle was located inside the cella (inner chamber) called the adyton which had the statue of Apollo and Omphalos. Like many other Greek temples, an eternal flame burned in the hestia (hearth) located at the rear of the cella.

The walls of the pronaos (vestibule of the temple) had inscriptions of saying attributed to the seven Greek sages. These sayings include “know thyself” and “everything in moderation. “

Omphalos

In the ancient Greek language, the word Omphalos means “naval.” The Omphalos of Delphi refers to a conical-shaped stone that represents the navel of the earth.

According to Pausanias, a Greek historian who visited Delphi in the second century CE, a copy of Omphalos draped with wreaths was kept near the seat of oracle in the inner chamber (adyton) of the Temple of Apollo. Ancient Greeks believed that this is where Apollo killed the evil python, and Omphalos was used to communicate directly with the gods.

Experts believe that many copies of Omphalos existed in the Sanctuary of Apollo. The archaeological site of Delphi has one of the stones, and another one is in the Delphi Archaeological Museum. See the images below.

Omphalos

Dancers of Delphi

Displayed at the Delphi Archaeological Museum, the Dancers of Delphi is a sculpture with three female figures, fragments of which were found on the terraces in the east and northeast part of the Temple of Apollo in 1894. See the images below.

The Dancers of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum

Experts believe that this sculpture was located in the adyton (inner sanctum) of the Temple of Apollo and a part of the column that was holding the Omphalos stone. It was likely that there was a tripod-like structure – probably made of bronze – between the heads of the dances and the Omphalos stone.

Halos

A circular space near the Temple of Apollo.

Altar of Chiots

Built by the people of Aegean island of Chios in the 4th century BCE, the Alter of Chiots became the main altar of the 3rd temple that was rebuilt in 330 BCE.

This monument is located in front of the Temple of Apollo and there is a large open space between the altar and the temple. An ancient staircase leads to this altar and to the temple from the Sacred Way. The altar was made of black marble except for the base and cornice which were made of white marble.

Delphi: Base of the Altar of Chiots — Base of the Altar of Chiots

Polygonal Wall

The Polygonal Wall was built as a retaining wall to support the terrace that houses the temple platform. This was introduced during the construction of the second temple in 548 BCE.

Some stones on the Polygonal Wall have detailed inscriptions that were carved sometime in 2nd or 3rd century BCE. These inscriptions mostly mention the emancipation of slaves.

Polygonal retention wall of Temple of Apollo — Polygonal Wall

The polygonal walls get their name from the polygonal shapes of the stones that were used to build the wall. Notice that the Polygonal Wall shown in the image has some curved stones in addition to the polygonal stones.

The polygonal walls are considered an engineering marvel because of the way in which they were built. The walls did not make use of mortar or cement because the stones with irregular shapes and sizes that made up the wall fit perfectly.

It appears as though the stones were precisely cut and polished using sophisticated machinery. However, there is no evidence to suggest that such machinery or tools existed in ancient times. In all likelihood, engineers in those days must have devised some ingenious techniques to build such walls using primitive tools.

One of the main advantages of polygonal walls is that they withstand earthquakes very well, as evidenced in Delphi, which suffered numerous earthquakes for the past 2500 years. The polygonal walls in Delphi have some similarities with the polygonal walls used in the structures built by the Incas in Cusco and Saksaywaman. These places are also located on the severe earthquake zone, and the Inca structures seem to have withstood earthquakes very well.

Stoa of the Athenians

The Stoa of the Athenians was built against the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo. This structure was used to house the trophies won by the Athenians in their naval victories. The façade originally had seven columns, only four of them have survived. The roof was believed to be wooden. It was built between 510 and 470 BCE.

Kings of Argos Monument

The city-state of Argos, which had many kings before it became a democracy, built this monument to house the statues of its kings. It is a semi-circular structure with niches to hold bronze statues. While the plan was to house twenty statues, the city-state of Argos was able to erect only ten statues.

King of Argos monument at Delphi — King of Argos monument

Silver Bull

The image shows the statue of a bull reconstructed from the fragments of silver sheets excavated at the Sanctuary of Apollo. It is on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. The base of the statue is located somewhere near the entrance of the Sacred Way.

Naxian Sphinx

Located below the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo, Naxian Sphinx was a votive offering at the Temple of Apollo by the people of Naxos, an island belonging to the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea. It is a statue of the mythical creature that has the head of a woman, the body of a lion and wings of an eagle. In ancient times, sphinxes were considered guardians of tombs and sanctuaries. The statue was constructed in 560 BCE and was made from Naxian marble. It stood on a free-standing tall Ionic column that was 12 meters high and was an imposing sight at that time.

Marble statue of Naxian Sphinx on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum

Pillar of King Prusias II of Bithynia

Situated on the northeast entrance of the Temple of Apollo, this monument was erected to honor King Prusias II of Bithynia in 182 BCE. The pillar is 9.7 meters high and the statue of the king on the horseback once stood on top of it.

This monument was an offering to the Temple of Apollo by Bithynia, a kingdom of Thracian tribe Bithyni, and located in the northwest region of Asia Minor (currently in the Anatolia province of Turkey).

Treasuries

Along the Sacred Way, there were many treasuries built by the individual city-states to help their citizens store the votive offerings. They included the Treasury of the Athenians, Treasury of the Siphnians, Treasury of the Boeotians and Treasury of the Sikyonians.

Treasury of the Athenians

The Treasury of the Athenians was built by the city-state of Athens to commemorate the Battle of Marathon in 496 BCE. The purpose of this building was to house the offerings brought by Athenians to be offered the Temple of Apollo.

The site was excavated by the French School of Athens, which reconstructed the monument at the site in 1903-1906. The architectural style of this building is the Doric Order. The metopes on this building are replicas, and the originals (mostly fragments) are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.

Note: A metophe is a rectangular architectural element that is placed in the space between two sets of vertical tablets on a Doric frieze.

Treasury of the Siphnians

The Treasury of the Siphnians was built around 525 BCE by the city-state of Siphnos, which is also an island in the Aegean Sea. The people of Siphnos accumulated wealth by mining silver and gold. They used tithe of the profits from mining to build this monument.

Just like the Treasure of the Athenians, the purpose of this building was to house the votive offerings brought by the people of Siphnos.

Treasury of the Siphnians at Delphi — Treasury of the Siphnians

Siphnians Treasury caryatid on display at the Delphi museum — Siphnians Treasury caryatid on display at the Delphi Museum

The architecture style of this building is the Ionic Order. It had rich decorations including caryatids (female figures) as supporting columns of structures. See the image below. It had pediments on all the four sides, each of which is adorned with beautiful sculptures depicting stories from Greek mythology.

Votive Offerings

Twins of Argos

The two life-sized marble statues of two brothers – Cleobis and Biton – were votive offerings at the Sanctuary of Apollo by the city of Argos which is located in the Argolis region of Peloponnese.

Both the statues and one of the bases with inscription were found near the Treasury of the Athenians in 1893. They were dated approximately 580 BCE.

Statues of Argos Twins on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum

Charioteer of Delphi

Bronze statue of a charioteer on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum

The Charioteer of Delphi is a life-size bronze statue of a young man on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. This masterpiece was part of a bigger sculpture containing a chariot, fours horses and two charioteers (one of them is this statue) and was found intact in the Sanctuary of Apollo in 1896.

This was a votive offering to the Temple of Apollo in 474 BCE to honor the victory in a chariot race in the Pythian Games.

Theater

The theater is located above the Temple of Apollo and is well-preserved. It was built sometime in the 4th century BCE and underwent remodeling several times.

During the Pythian Games, this theater hosted music competitions, and during important festivals, it hosted plays and other theatrical performances.

Athens

A Modern City with a Glorious Past

Known as the birthplace of democracy, Athens is a city with a long and glorious past, which started as early as 1400 BCE as an important center of the Mycenaean civilization. Athens is where western civilization took roots. At its heyday, Athens was the leader of the Greek city-states. It was home to many great philosophers, including Socrates (469 – 399 BCE), Aristotle (427 – 347 BCE) and Plato (384 – 322 BCE). In addition to philosophy, Athens was at the forefront of arts, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.

After Athens declined as the powerhouse of the Greek city-states, it was ruled by Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. Many iconic structures of Greece that include Parthenon are in Athens. The ruins of ancient monuments that are spread all over the city speak of different eras in Athens’ history.

Location

Athens is also called Athina in Greek. It is located on mainland Greece.

Modern Athens

Athens is the capital of Greece and a cosmopolitan city. It also has one of the biggest ports in Europe. The port of Piraeus is part of greater Athens and handles large passenger traffic.

Syntagma Square

This is the central square of Athens where the Greek Parliament building is located.

Parliament Building

The current Greek Parliament building was built in 1836 as the royal palace of King Otto I, the first king of modern Greece.

Tomb of the Unknown Soldier

The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is in the front of the Greek Parliament building and guarded by the members of the presidential guards.

National Gardens

The Greek National Gardens is located behind the Parliament building.

Monument to Lord Byron at the National Gardens, Athens

Trees at the National Gardens

Athens Olympics Games

The modern Olympic Games are modeled after the ancient Olympic Games that were held in Olympia for many centuries in ancient times. The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens on April 6, 1896, and held again there in 2004.

Panathenaic Stadium

The Panathenaic Stadium is one of the main attractions of Athens. The original stadium at this site was built in 330 BCE and was remodeled in 144 CE by Herodus Atticus, an Athenian aristocrat who rose became a Roman Senator. This site was excavated in 1869 and a new stadium was reconstructed at the same site.

It was used for the opening and closing ceremonies of the first modern Olympic Games. This stadium was remodeled for the 2004 Olympic Games. This venue was the finishing point for the men’s and women’s Marathon races. In addition, the archery competition was held there. It currently being used for a variety of purposes, including as a venue to transfer the Olympic flame to the host nation.

Views of the City

The city of Athens contains many hills, including Acropolis, Philopappu and Lycabettus hills. The views of Athens with these hills are spectacular.

A view of Athens showing Mount Lycabettus

A view of Athens showing the Philopappos hill and monument

A view of Athens showing the Philopappos (Philopappu) monument

A view of Athens from Acropolis showing the Hadrian's Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus

A view of Athens showing the Hadrian’s Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus

Views of Athens

Ancient Athens

Acropolis

The Acropolis is a citadel located on a flat-topped rock in the city of Athens. It is about 500 ft above sea level and has a dominating presence in Athens.

The Acropolis was inhabited since the Neolithic period (6th century BCE). It is believed that it had a Mycenaean Megaroon when Athens was part of the Mycenaean Empire.

The Acropolis has ruins of many iconic structures of Greece, including the Parthenon.

Parthenon

The Parthenon is known all over the world as an iconic symbol of ancient Greece and western civilization. It is also regarded as a symbol of democracy.

Located at the center of Acropolis, the Parthenon was built as a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin) by Pericles. It replaced the existing temple of Athena, which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE. The construction of Parthenon began in 447 BCE and ended in 438 BCE. A gold and ivory statue of Athena stood in the cella (inner sanctum) of the temple. In addition to being a temple of goddess Athena, it also served as a treasury.

Parthenon - A monument located on Athens Acropolis — Parthenon – A monument located on Athens Acropolis

Destruction

Over the years, the Parthenon was plundered, destroyed and converted many times. The Germanic tribes destroyed inner a part of Parthenon in the 3rd or 4th century. When Athens came under the Roman Empire, the Parthenon was converted to a church in the 6th century by early Christians and was called the church of Holy Wisdom. In the 11th century, it was dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After the Frankish crusaders took over Athens, it became the Church of Notre Dame in 1204. When the Ottoman Empire took control of Athens in 1458, the Parthenon was converted to a mosque and a minaret was added to it.

A large part of Parthenon was destroyed during the bombardment of Athens by Venetians in 1687. During the war with the Republic of Venice, the Ottoman Empire stored ammunition inside the Parthenon. A cannonball fired by the Venetian troops led by the Venetian general Francisco Morosini hit the Parthenon directly igniting the stored ammunition and resulting in the destruction of precious sculptures and part of the structure.

One of the biggest damage to the Parthenon was caused by then English Ambassador to Constantinople, Thomas Bruce (7th Earl of Elgin), who in 1801- 1802 bribed Turkish authorities and sawed away many priceless sculptures and transported them to England. Today most of them are on display in the British Museum in London.

The Parthenon is now a UNESCO World Heritage site and is currently being restored by the Greek Government.

Odeon of Herodes Atticus

This theater was built in 161 CE on the southwest slopes of Acropolis by Herodes Atticus to honor his wife Aspacia Anna Regilla. Herodes Atticus was an aristocratic Athenian who became a Roman Senator. He was responsible for constructing many buildings in Greece and Athens in particular.

The Odeon was used as a music theater and could seat about 5000 people. It was destroyed by a Germanic tribe in 267 CE.

Odeon of Herodes Atticus

The facade of Odeon of Herodes Atticus

Odeon of Herodes Atticus

Erechtheion

Built on a slope on the north side of Acropolis in Athens, Greece, the Erechtheion, a temple built by the famous sculptor Phidias and dedicated to the legendary King Erichthonius, is second only to the Parthenon in importance. Its complex ground plan has porches on the east, north and south sides. The east side porch is dedicated to Athena and the west side to Poseidon. The construction of the original monument began in 420 BCE and ended in 406 BCE. After Roman General Sulla sacked it 80 BCE, it underwent many modifications in the subsequent years.

Porch of the Caryatids

Erechtheion - A monument located at Athens Acropolis — Erechtheion

The image shows the south side porch of the Erechtheion. As you can see from the image, the porch has six caryatids, which are replicas. The original caryatids were moved to the museums for safekeeping. Five of them are now in the new Acropolis Museum in Athens, and the sixth, which was taken by Lord Elgin in the 19th century to decorate his mansion in Scotland, is in the British Museum in London.

Original Caryatid on display at the Acropolis Museum

Note: A Caryatid in Greek architecture is a female sculpture that serves as a column that helps to support a structure.

A recent study suggests that this building was referred to as the Parthenon in ancient texts, instead of the structure we now identify as the Parthenon, because it fits the name and description in those texts. Note that Parthenon means a room for virgins in Greek.

Theatre of Dionysus

As the name suggests, this theater was dedicated to Dionysus, the god of plays and wine. Situated on the foothills of Acropolis, this theater in its current form could seat as many as 17,000 people. The theater was in existence since 6th century BCE but underwent many modifications. It is believed to be the birthplace of Greek tragedy.

Arch of Hadrian (Hadrian’s Gate)

This is a Roman-era monument honoring Roman Emperor Hadrian.

Hadrian's Arch at Athens — Hadrian’s Arch

Temple of Olympian Zeus

The Temple of Olympian Zeus is located near the Arch of Hadrian, and as the name suggests it is dedicated to Olympian Zeus. The construction of this temple started in the 6th century BCE but completed much later by the Roman Emperor Hadrian.

The original temple when completed had 104 columns, out which only 16 survived.

Temple of Olympian Zeus at Athens — Temple of Olympian Zeus

Hadrian's Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus view from the Athens Acropolis — Hadrian’s Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus

Ancient Agora

In ancient Greek cities, the Agora was like the public square where people assembled to hear announcements, engage in political discourses, watch theatrical performances and athletic contests, and participate in religious activities. Because the Agora was a meeting place of people, it also served as a market place.

The Ancient Agora of Athens was the center of Athenian democracy where the political power was exercised. Starting from the 6th century BCE, the Agora gradually expanded to contain numerous public buildings, fountains, temples, and statues and attained the final form in the 2nd century CE. The image below shows the map of the Ancient Agora when it reached this form.

Temple of Hephaestus (Hēphaistos)

Hephaestus is the Greek god of fire and metal works and was worshiped by craftsmen and artisans in ancient Greece, especially in Athens.

The Temple of Hephaestus is one of the well-preserved buildings in Athens. It has two facades, one facing east and the other west. The east facade faces the Agora.

Temple of Hephaestus

Temple of Hephaestus – Interior

Temple of Hephaestus

The temple was converted to the church of St George in the 7th century. This is also the place where the first of king of modern Greece, King Otto, was officially received.

Byzantine Period

As Athens became Christian, the pagan traditions of Athens disappeared. Ancient buildings such as Parthenon were converted to churches and many new churches were built. During this period Athens lost its character, and the grandeur and splendor with which Greeks built their buildings were gone forever.

Church of the Holy Apostles

This church was built in the 11th century but was altered many times. It was restored to the current form in 1956.

Church of Holy Apostles at Athens — Athens: Church of Holy Apostles

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Crete

Located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Crete is the biggest island in the Aegean Sea. This is where the Minoan civilization, a mysterious culture that was well ahead of their time, thrived more than 4000 years ago.

Crete has many archaeological sites belonging to the Minoan civilization, including palaces at the following four sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Zakros. The Palace at Knossos is the most famous among them.

Knossos

Knossos is believed to the oldest city in Europe and is the place of the legendary King Minos.

Discovery and Excavation

Although Minos Kalokairinos, a merchant of Heraklion, discovered Knossos in 1878, the credit for bringing world’s attention to Knossos goes to Arthur Evans, a British archaeologist who started excavation in 1900 and continued until 1934 with some interruptions during World War I. He and his team retrieved a large number of artifacts and restored and reconstructed parts of the palace. Some of the reconstruction was the creation of Arthur Evans imagination. Based on his findings, he published a four-volume book work titled The Palace of Minos at Knossos.

The team led by Arthur Evans also discovered tablets inscribed two different scripts, which he named them as Linear A and Linear B. While they appear similar, the contents of the inscriptions belong to two entirely different languages. The language of Linear A is Minoan, which is probably close to Sanskrit, whereas the language of Linear B is Mycenaean, which is close to Greek.

Because of its closeness to Greek, Linear B inscriptions have been mostly deciphered. The Linear B tablets were inscribed later than Linear A tablets. It appears Linear B descended from Linear A and the Mycenaean used it even after the collapse of the Minoan civilization.

Palace at Knossos

The Knossos Palace was a massive complex of structures that included royal quarters, religious halls and storage rooms. There were two versions of palaces at Knossos. An earthquake destroyed the first palace (1900 – 1700 BCE ). A new palace (1700 – 1450 BCE) was then built at the same site.

Knossos had maze-like structures with some buildings having multiple floors. See the images below.

Ruins of Palace at Knossos in Crete, Greece — Ruins of Palace at Knossos

Ruins of a multi-storied structure at the Knossos Palace in Crete, Greece — Ruins of Palace at Knossos

Ruins of the Palace of Knossos

The entire complex was designed with a very sophisticated water management system to supply fresh water to the residential quarters and an underground sewage system to flush out the waste. The water was available even on the upper floors of multi-storied buildings.

Horns of Consecration

As mentioned earlier, the bull played an important role in Minoan religion and everyday life. Many buildings in the Knossos site had the bull horns like structures on the top. Arthur Evans called them “Horns of Consecration.”

The image below shows the reconstructed structure of bull horns.

Horns of Consecration representing sacred bull horns at the Palace of Knossos — Horns of Consecration representing sacred bull horns

The Horns of Consecration symbols were found on Minoan seals as well.

Hall with Columns and Frescoes

The ruins have many reconstructed halls with wooden columns painted black and red as shown in the image below. Arthur Evans used archaeological facts and some imagination to reconstruct the hall, and he did so by using modern materials.

Unlike the columns in Greek buildings elsewhere, the Minoan columns are wider at the top and narrower at the bottom.

Reconstructed hall with columns and frescoes at the Palace of Knossos — Reconstructed hall with columns and frescoes

Mounted on the walls are the copies of the frescoes that were reconstructed by using their fragments found at this site.

Throne Room

The Throne Room is one of the important structures in the Knossos Palace. The purpose of this room is still being debated.

Built into the wall in the middle of the room is a rock throne flanked on each side by the frescoes of Griffins, which are the mythological creatures with the head and wings of an eagle and body and tail of a lion.

Griffin Fresco in the Throne Room at Knossos

A circular tub called lustral basin In front of the throne, which was likely used for ceremonial purposes. Built into the wall next to the throne are the benches that can accommodate about 16 people.

King’s Megaron

Believing that this place was King Minos’s apartment, Arthur Evans named it King’s Megaron. Using some imagination, he reconstructed it using modern materials. He also placed a reconstructed wooden throne inside this structure.

This structure is also called the Hall of the Double Axes because of the double-axe symbols found engraved on the walls of a well inside this structure.

Kings’ Megaron

Queen’s Megaron

The Queen’s Megaron was assumed by Arthur Evans to be the queen’s apartment, but there is no archaeological evidence to prove it. The suite has a hall with the famous Dolphins fresco, bathroom, toilet, and small well.

Bastion of the Bull

Located near the northern entrance, Bastion of the Bull is yet another structure reconstructed by Arthur Evans by using his imagination. As you can see in the image below, the famous Charging Bull fresco is engraved on its wall.

Theater Area

This where the visitors to the palace were received. The Theater Area is also connected to a road called Royal Road.

Arts

The Minoan art includes frescoes, pottery and bronze sculptures.

Frescoes

Beautiful and colorful frescoes decorated the walls of the Minoan palaces and houses. They followed a certain color code, perhaps borrowed from the Egyptians. Some of the codes are, red for men, white for women, yellow for gold.

The images below show the replicated frescoes displayed at the ruins of the Knossos Palace.

Dolphins fresco found in Queen's Megaron at the archaeological site of Knossos in Crete, Greece — Ladies in Blue fresco on display at the Knossos Palace in Crete, Greece

Frescoes on display at the Palace of Knossos

Prince of the Lilies Fresco

This is one of the well-known Minoan fresco and believed to represent the Priest-King of Knossos. It was reconstructed from the fragments retrieved from the archaeological site. The duplicate fresco is on display at the Corridor of Procession in the Knossos Palace.

Bull Leaping Fresco

The Bull-Leaping fresco depicts a dangerous game of leaping over a bull, and it was played by both men and women. In the image shown below, the person who leaps over the bull is believed to be a man and the persons standing in the front and back of the bull are believed to be women. The gender of the players is inferred from the color code used by the painters, i.e., light color for women and brown for men.

It appears that the game of Bull Leaping was important to the Minoan culture, and the game could have been ceremonial.

Fresco displayed at the Palace of Knossos depicting the game of Bull Leaping — Fresco depicting the game of Bull Leaping

Pottery

Although smaller pots were discovered in the Minoan archaeological sites, Minoans were known for their giant jars called Pithoi.

Pithoi Jars

Pithoi jars were likely used as storage devices for liquids, grains, dried fish and olives. Several hundreds of them were found in the ruins at Knossos. Because of their size, they were typically placed on the ground floors. Pithois are differentiated based on their size, the number of handles and decoration on the outer surface.

Arthur Evans found a number of giant Pithoi jars in one place, which he named it “The Magazines of Giant Pithoi.” See the images below.

Pithoi jars found at the ruins of Palace at Knossos in Crete, Greece — Pithoi jars found at the ruins of Palace at Knossos in Crete

Jars at "The Magazines of the Great Pithoi" at the Knossos Palace in Crete, Greece — Pithoi jars found at the ruins of Palace at Knossos in Crete

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A Masterpiece of Khmer Temple Art

A Bit of History

Temple Complex

Gate and Causeway

Outer Enclosure

Middle Enclosure

East Gopura

Gaja Lakshmi

West Gopura

Surrounding Walls

Inner Enclosure

Gopuras

Mysterious Libraries

South Library

East Facade

Ravana Shaking Mount Kailash

West Facade

North Library

East Facade

Burning of the Khandava Forest

West Facade

Sanctuary Towers (Prasats)

Central Sanctuary Tower

Mantapa

South Sanctuary Tower

North Sanctuary Tower

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Places to Visit

Siem Reap

Lake Tonlé Sap

Phnom Kulen National Park

Phenom Penh

Indian Influence

History

Khmer Empire

The founding of the Empire

Early Years

State of Turmoil

Rise of Yashovarman I

Jayavarman V – The Intellectual King

Golden Age

Suryavarman II – The Radical King

Diplomacy

Military Campaigns

Breaking with Tradition

Jayavarman VII – The Benevolent King

Religion

Cham People

Language

Currency

Rural Cambodia

Lotus Farming

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Location

Archaeological Site

Cyclopean Wall

Lion Gate

Grave Circle A

Mycenae Palace

Cistern

North Gate

Agamemnon Tomb (Treasury of Atreus)

Entrance to the tomb

Passageway

Chamber

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Minoan Civilization

Language and Writing System

Religion

Bull Cult

Legend of Minotaur