Category: Civilization
Minoan
The Minoan civilization is named after Minos, the legendary King of Crete. It is the oldest civilization in Europe, which flourished from 2600 to 1100 BCE in Crete and nearby islands. The island of Crete is at the crossroads of three continents: Asia, Europe, and Africa. The Minoan civilization flourished because they were skilled seafarers and were able to trade with the cities in these three continents. It is contemporary with the Indus Valley civilization that was flourishing in the Indian sub-continent, but no evidence of trade between them has been found.
Minoan Civilization
The Minoan civilization is named after Minos, the legendary King of Crete. It is the oldest civilization in Europe, which flourished from 2600 to 1100 BCE in Crete and nearby islands.
The island of Crete is at the crossroads of three continents: Asia, Europe, and Africa. The Minoan civilization flourished because they were skilled seafarers and were able to trade with the cities in these three continents. It is contemporary with the Indus Valley civilization that was flourishing in the Indian sub-continent, but no evidence of trade between them has been found.
Language and Writing System
The language spoken by the Minoans was believed to be closer to Sanskrit than Greek. The early Minoans used the hieroglyphic writing system, but most of their writing was in Linear A, which is yet to be deciphered. However, the similar script (i.e., Linear B) was used by the Mycenaean culture has been deciphered, which led the experts to believe that the language spoken by the Minoans was a lot different from the one spoken by the Greeks.
Religion
Because Linear A script is yet to be deciphered, very little is known about the Minoan religion and its practices. Minoans seemed to have worshiped female deities and their religious symbols included sacred horns of the bull and double-axe.
Human migration and travelers from Asia, Egypt and Mediterranean had a strong influence on the Minoan religion. For the same reason, the Minoan society was multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, therefore, it is believed that the Minoans practiced different religions.
Bull Cult
Interactions with other cultures had a lot of influence on Minoan religious practices, especially bull worship. Many cultures contemporary with Minoans worshiped the bull because it was considered a symbol of fertility.
Because the bull was part of Minoan religious ceremonies, experts believe that the bull cult was one of their religions.
Legend of Minotaur
According to Greek mythology, Minos the King of Crete lived in the Palace at Knossos where he had built a labyrinth to confine Minotaur, a creature with the head of a bull and body of a man.
Minotaur is an offspring of Minos’s wife and a bull, which was sent by Poseidon at the request of Minos during the power struggle with his brothers. Minotaur had a head of a bull and body of a man and devoured humans for food. King Minos ordered his architect to build a labyrinth in order to confine Minotaur.
A legend tells how the Minotaur was killed. According to this legend, King Minos’s son was killed by jealous Athenians when he won the Pan Athenian games in Athens. To avenge his son’s death, King Minos sent a huge naval force to wage a war against Athenians and defeated them. The defeated Athenians made a deal with King Minos to send able-bodied young men and women from Athens to Knossos to be devoured by Minotaur. After many young men were killed, an Athenian named Theseus killed Minotaur and set Athens free.
Akrotiri
Akrotiri is a major archaeological site on the island of Santorini where buildings and artifacts belonging to the Minoan civilization were found. Akrotiri was a city that had well laid out roads, houses, storage places, and sophisticated water management systems. It was most likely a trading center.
Although Akrotiri did not have a palace complex like the Palace at Knossos, artifacts recovered from this site were similar to ones from Crete. These included numerous frescoes, Pithoi jars and pottery, and some of them were well-preserved because the site was covered by volcanic ash.
Collapse of the Minoan Civilization
A massive volcanic eruption occurred in 1646 BCE at the height of Minoan civilization destroyed the Island of Thera, which was located just 60 miles from Crete. Experts believe this cataclysmic event most likely contributed to the demise of the Minoan civilization. The volcano resulted in earthquakes and a massive tsunami that swept away the Palace at Knossos and other Minoan settlements in Crete. Although the Minoan civilization survived for another 50 years, weakened Minoans could not defend an invasion by the Mycenaeans, who eventually occupied Crete and ended the Minoan civilization in 1420 BCE.
Copyright © 2017-2019 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
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Pre-Inca
Ancient Cultures of Peru
Before the Inca arrived on the scene, the Andean region was home to many flourishing cultures. Some of them flourished for a few hundred years and then declined, but none of them grow up to the level of the Inca Empire in size and sophistication.
The Inca Empire expanded quickly by taking control of the territories around the Andean region. When the Inca conquered a culture, their culture and practices got assimilated into the Inca culture. Unlike the Spanish, the Inca were accepting of the religions and traditions of the conquered culture. They utilized the expertise from the conquered people to build a bigger and mightier empire.
Unlike their northern neighbors like the Maya, none of the ancient cultures in South America had a writing system. To differentiate a culture in such cases, archaeologists typically use the style of pottery created by that culture. Because people needed pots for many day-to-day tasks, such as cooking, eating and drinking, there is an abundance of pottery in the archaeological sites. Pottery provides a glimpse into their world as pots tell us about their lifestyle, religious beliefs and rituals, and relationship with nature and animals.
Wari (Huari)
The Wari culture flourished from 500 CE to 1000 CE in the south-central and coastal region of Peru. Experts believe that the Wari people were the inventors of the terrace agriculture, which the Inca later improved by employing new techniques, including the use of aqueducts in water management.
The Wari also pioneered the concept of centralized administration and built a network of roads to help control their empire. The Incas later used this network and extended it to govern their empire from a central place.
The Wari borrowed many aspects of their religion and rituals from the Tiwanaku culture that flourished in southern Peru and Bolivia. They worshiped the same staff god – which is an iconographic figure holding a staff in each hand – as Tiwanaku. The staff god later became Viracocha in the Inca religion.
Nazca
Famous for their geoglyphs known as the Nazca Lines, the Nazca culture flourished from 100 CE to 800 CE in the southern coast of Peru. The Nazca also left some amazing pottery that was beautiful and expressive.
The image below shows a ceramic drum most likely used as a funerary object.
Moche (Mochica)
The Moche culture flourished in northern Peru from 100 CE to 700CE. It is also known as Mochica because it is one of the languages they spoke. The Moche were contemporary with the Nazca culture in the south.
Not much is known about the religion Moche practiced. They mostly worshiped a moon goddess and considered the moon was more powerful than the sun, although they had temples for both the moon and sun.
There is enough archaeological evidence of Moche engaging in human sacrifice as a ritual. The Moche seemed to have sacrificed their enemy combatants and ritually consumed their blood. There is no evidence of them sacrificing women and children,
Experts are not sure about the reasons for the demise of the Moche culture. Some of the reasons attributed to their decline are earthquakes, drought, flooding, and the El Niño phenomenon. In a couple of hundred years after their demise, the Chimu culture arose in the same area and borrowed many ideas from the Moche culture.
Arts and Crafts
The Moche are known for their artistic expression, especially in their pottery. Moche pottery is one of the most beautiful and artistic potteries in the world. Their pots are multi-colored and expressive, and they depict everyday life, rituals, deities, animals.
Moche Owl God on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Moche pottery depicting sacrifice on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Moche deer hunt pottery
Moche pottery on display at Museo Larco
Erotic Pottery
One of the unusual aspects of Moche pottery is the depiction of explicit sex acts, including sex between a man and woman, a man and man, and between animals. It appears that the Moche society was never shy about their sexuality. Only the sculptures of Khajuraho, India are more explicit than the erotic pottery of Moche.
Moche human erotic pottery
Moche animal erotic pottery
Moche erotic pottery on display at Museo Larco
Ornaments
Moche gold head dress on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Moche gold ear pieces on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Moche sculptural nose ornaments on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Moche ornaments on display at Museo Larco
Lambayeque (Sican)
The Lambayenque culture, also known as the Sican culture, flourished on the northern coast of Peru between 750 CE and 1375 CE. They seem to have inherited many concepts from both the Wari and Moche cultures. Unlike the Wari and Moche, the Lambayenque were not expansionist and their kingdom consisted of loosely coupled cities. The Chimu culture eventually conquered and assimilated them into their culture.
The image below shows the funerary attire consisting of a shirt and a loincloth belonging to the Lambayenque culture.
Chimu
The Chimu culture succeeded the Moche and flourished in northern Peru from 1000 CE until they were conquered by the Inca in 1470 CE. Unlike the Inca, the Chimu worshiped the moon and considered it more powerful than the sun, an idea they inherited from the Moche. When the Inca conquered the Chimu and imposed their religion on them, there was discontent among the Chimu people. The Spanish exploited this discontent to their advantage.
The Chimu people spoke Yunga and Mochica, both of which are now extinct. The Chimu created new cities and the most important among them was their capital Chan Chan.
Arts and Crafts
The Chimu are also well-known for their arts and crafts. There is some similarity between Moche and Chimu pottery. Moche pottery is multi-colored and expressive whereas Chimu pottery is mostly black and mass-produced as the Chimu were more technologically advanced than the Moche.
Besides pottery, the Chimu culture was famous for its expertise in metal works, especially working with metals like gold and silver. The images below show the fine gold jewelry created by the Chimu artisans.
Chimu gold head dress on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Chimu gold attire on display at Museo Larco in Lima, Peru
Chimu gold jewelry on display at Museo Larco
The image below shows a silver bowl with birds (most likely pelicans) embossed on the outer surface. This bowl was likely used by the Chimu for ceremonial purposes.
The Chimu also knew how to create fine textiles from cotton, llama, alpaca and vicuña yarns.
When the Inca conquered the Chimu, they realized the value of the Chimu artisans and moved some of them to their capital Cuzco.
Just like the Moche, there is some evidence to suggest that the Chimu were also engaged in rituals of human sacrifice. But unlike the Moche, they seem to have sacrificed children to please various gods.
Cupisnique
The Cupisnique culture flourished between 1500 BCE to 500 BCE in northern Peru. The Moche culture succeeded Cupisnique and borrowed many ideas from them.
The image below shows a 3000-year-old stone sculpture of a female deity believed to belong to the Cupisnique culture. This deity was found in the Temple of Pacopampa in the Cajamarca region, which is located on the northern highlands of Peru.
In 2009, a team of Japanese archaeologists discovered the tomb of a sophisticated woman in the Temple of Pacopampa. Now known as The Lady of Pacopampa, she had her skull deformed deliberately at childhood and buried with gold earrings, seashell necklaces, and ceramic pottery, which led many experts to believe that she must have been a high-ranking person in the society, probably the queen or a high priestess.
Paracas
The Paracas culture flourished from 800 BCE to 100 BCE in the Ica region of Peru. They are well-known for textiles and water management. Paracas textiles typically used alpaca yarn. The image below shows a 2500-year-old Paracas mantle with beautiful embroidery.
Saksaywaman near Cuzco, Peru
Kilke
The Kilke culture flourished from 900 CE to 1200 CE in the Cuzco region of Peru. Not much is known about them. There is little pottery or other artifacts attributed to them. However, experts believe that they built the massive structure in Saksaywaman near Cuzco. See the image below.
Because of its structure and the style, historians widely believe Saksaywaman was a fortress and not a temple. Some of the stones used in the structure were so massive that they weighed between 90 to 120 tons. Stones were of different sizes and shapes but were perfectly fused together like a Jigsaw puzzle. It is not fully understood how this structure was constructed by the people who did not have sophisticated tools or machinery.
When the Inca conquered the Kilke, they expanded the fortress further. After the Spanish conquered the Inca, they destroyed as much as they can and reused the stones to build other structures such as churches.
Copyright © 2017 – 2019 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
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Ancient Civilizations
Olympia
Olympia – The Birthplace of the Olympic Games
Located on the Elis region of the Peloponnese peninsula,Olympia in ancient times was a sanctuary famous for starting the tradition of the Olympic Games. The first games were held in 776 BCE, and they were continued to be held every four years until the 4th century CE. The modern Olympic Games were modeled after these games.
In addition to the Olympic Games, Olympia was known for two magnificent temples: Temple of Zeus and Temple of Hera. The statue of Zeus, which was housed in the Temple of Zeus, is considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
The Sanctuary at Olympia is also known as the Sanctuary of Altis. There are a lot of similarities between the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi and the Sanctuary of Altis. Like Delphi, Olympia was a religious sanctuary and housed temples, votive buildings, statues, treasuries, and administrative buildings. Both the sanctuaries held games every four years. Unlike Delphi, which is on a mountain slope, Olympia is on a level space.
The excavation of Olympia started in 1829 by the French and continued by the Germans in 1875. The excavation was then taken up by the Greek Government in the 20th century and is still continuing.
The archaeological site of Olympia currently has ruins of ancient structures, some of which are restored. The Olympia Archaeological Museum is located near the site and has on display many precious artifacts recovered from the site.
Location
Olympia is north of the Alpheios River and south of Mount Kronos. The Kladeos River, a tributary of Alpheios, runs through this area.
Olympic Games
In ancient Greece, the Olympic Games was one of the four in Panhellenic Games held at an interval of four years at Olympia. The other three were: Pythian Games, Nemean Games, and Isthmian Games. The Olympic Games was the most important one and used to measure time in years. An Olympiad is a period of four years in which the Olympic Games was held in year one, Nemean Games and Isthmian Games were held in year two and four and Pythian Games was held in year three.
The Olympic Games started as a festival honoring Zeus in which a series of competitions, including foot race, javelin throw, wrestling and chariot race, were held between the representatives of Greek city-states. As the Olympic Games gained popularity, it lost its religious character and became an athletic and social event. Because Greek city-states frequently fought among themselves, an Olympic truce was declared to temporarily stop all warfare during the games.
The winners were crowned with olive leaf wreaths and winning the competition was very prestigious for a city-state. Only men with proven Greek ancestry were allowed to compete in the games. Women were neither allowed to compete nor watch the events. Politics became part of the games as city-states asserted their dominance over their rivals when they won the competitions.
Olympic Stadium
The ancient stadium at Olympia is located on the east side of the sanctuary and had the capacity to hold about 45,000 spectators.
Entrance
The stadium had an arched entrance called Krypte on the western side of the stadium facing the sanctuary. Only the athletes and the officials were allowed to use this entrance. This entrance was built around the late 3rd century BCE.
The images below show the arched way at the Olympia archaeological site.
Race Track
The race track had stone markers at the starting and ending lines. The length of the track between the starting and ending markers is 192.27 meters and the width is 28.50 meters. A stone ridge ran along the perimeter of the track.
Stadium with the race track where the ancient Olympic Games were held
Starting line marker embedded on the race track
Ancient race track
The stadium had permanent stone seats only for the judges and officials. It may have had wooden benches for the spectators.
Temple of Zeus
As the name suggests, this massive temple was built to honor Zeus, the king of the Greek gods. The construction of this temple began in 472 BCE and completed in 457 BCE, and was the main attraction of Olympia for about 800 years.
Ruins of Temple of Zeus
The remaining column of Temple of Zeus
The ruins of the Temple of Zeus
Architecture
The Temple of Zeus is a Doric style building with east-west orientation with the following dimensions: height 68 feet, width 95 and length 230 feet. The temple had three areas, a porch in the front, similar arrangement in the back and a cella in the middle. The temple stood on a platform with three unequal steps.
It had 6 columns each on the front and back and 13 columns on each side. Located above the columns were Doric friezes with 12 metophes. On the front and back of the temple, there were pediments located on top of the frieze. The lion-headed water sprouts ran along the temple. The figures on the pediments were identified by Pausanias, the Greek historian who visited the Temple of Zeus in the 2nd century BCE.
East Pediment
According to Pausanias, the east pediment on the Temple of Zeus depicted the chariot race that was about to begin between Oenomaos and Pelops. Oenomaos was the king of Pisa and Pelops was a suitor of Hippodameia, the daughter of Oenomaos.
At the center of the pediment is Zeus observing the chariot race, and was flanked by two heroes. The figures at the two ends represent the two rivers of Olympia, Alpheios and Kladeos.
The images below show the statues that were restored from the fragments excavated near the Temple of Zeus and are now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.
Sculptures from the east pediment of Temple of Zeus at Olympia
Statues from the east pediment of the Temple of Zeus
Statues of an old seer and two spectators from the eastern pediment of Temple of Zeus
Remnants of east pediment statues
West Pediment
The theme of the west pediment is the fight between the Lapiths and Centaurs. The restored structures portray the abduction of the Lapith women by the Centaurs.
At the center of this pediment is Apollo who is flanked by two heroes, Theseus and Peirithoos.
Sculptures on the west pediment of Temple of Zeus portraying the fight between the Centaurs and Lapiths
Statue of Apollo in the middle of the west pediment of Temple of Zeus at Olympia
Sculptures on the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus portraying the fight between the Centaurs and Lapiths
Remnants of west pediment statues
Statue of Zeus
A huge chryselephantine (made of ivory and gold) statue of Zeus stood inside the Temple of Zeus. The statue of Zeus is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although no fragments of this statue were ever discovered, many ancient coins of that period show different aspects of it. The Greek historian Pausanias, who visited Olympia in the 2nd century CE, also describe the statue.
The statue had Zeus seated on a throne carved with elaborate decorations that included the statues of other Greek gods Apollo, Artemis, and Nike. It was 42 feet high and 21 feet wide.
The statue was sculpted by the famous Athenian sculptor Phidias whose workshop was discovered near the temple. He started its construction in 432 BCE and took 12 years to complete it.
The statue was taken to Constantinople (currently Istanbul, Turkey) for safekeeping in 392 CE, but ironically destroyed in a fire 60 years later.
Destruction
The Byzantine Emperor Theodosius ordered it to be closed in 426 CE because of pagan practices. The temple was burnt and what was left was later destroyed in an earthquake in the 6th century.
Temple of Hera
Built around 590 BCE, this Doric style temple is one of the oldest temples in Greece and is located on the north-west corner of Altis. It is dedicated to Hera, the wife of Zeus and the queen of Greek gods.
The Temple of Hera was built more than a century before the construction of the Temple of Zeus during the period when God was considered a woman. The temple had three distinct areas: Pronaos (Front Porch), Cella (Inner Chamber), and Opisthodomos (Back Porch).
It had 6 columns each on the front and back and 16 column on each side. The columns were wooden initially but were gradually replaced by columns made from stones.
According to Pausanias, who visited this site in the 2nd century CE, the cella had the statue of Hera on the throne and the statue of Zeus standing next to her.
The image shows the head of a woman excavated near the Temple of Hera. Experts believe that the head belongs to the statue of Hera erected inside the temple.
The opisthodomos of the temple had a Chest of Kypselos, which was made of wood, ivory, and gold and decorated with mythological scenes.
The temple was remodeled many times. The Romans used it as a museum to stores treasures of the sanctuary. The marble statue of Hermes carrying the infant Dionysus sculpted by Praxiteles was one of them.
Zeus Holding Ganymedes
The statue depicting Zeus carrying Ganymedes is on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum. It is made of terracotta and dated between 480 and 470 BCE, and is most likely an acroterion (apex or end piece of a pediment) of a temple.
Philippeion
Philippeion was built by Philip II, the king of Macedonia and the father of Alexander the Great, to commemorate his victory over Thebans and Athenians in the Battle of Chaeronea in 335 BCE. Since Philip II died two years after the construction of this monument started, his son Alexander the Great most likely completed it.
This majestic monument was circular-shaped with a diameter of 15.3 meters and had two concentric rings of columns. The outer ring had 18 Ionic style columns, and the inner ring had Corinthian style half-columns. The roof was made of marble with a bronze poppy head. Inside the monument, it housed the statues of Philip II and his family that included his wife, parents, and son Alexander the Great.
Votive Offerings
As the Olympic Games became more popular, the sanctuary of Olympia became very prominent resulting in people from various city-states sending votive offerings to Olympia. The site was adorned with statues in different places. Just like Delphi, Olympia also had treasuries built by various city-states to deposit their votive offerings.
Nike of Paionios
A beautifully sculpted marble statue of Nike stood on a pillar near the Temple of Zeus. According to the inscription on the base of this statue, it was dedicated by the Messenians and Naupactians to commemorate their victory against the Lacedaemonians (Spartans ?) in the Peloponnesian war. The statue was sculpted using Parian marble by Paionois of Mendi around 421 BCE. It was sculpted to give an impression that Nike the goddess of victory was triumphantly descending from Mount Olympos.
Nike of Paionios on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
Nike of Paionios on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
The statue of Nike on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
The statue is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum and was restored from the fragments excavated near the Temple of Zeus.
Hermes of Praxiteles
The statue of Hermes carrying infant Dionysos was sculpted by the famous sculptor Praxiteles. This masterpiece is dated 330 BCE and was a votive offering placed on opisthodomos of the Temple of Hera.
Statue of Hermes of Praxiteles
Statue of Hermes of Praxiteles – Rear View
The statue of Hermes on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum
Treasury of the Megarians
Roman Period
Romans added many new buildings to the sanctuary, including Nymphaion, and continue the tradition of the Olympic Games. During the Roman period, the games were open to all citizens of the Roman Empire.
Nymphaeum (Nymphaion)
Located near the Temple of Hera, Nymphaion (also known as the Exedra of Herodes Atticus) was a magnificent two-story semi-circular building that housed a fountain. It was built in 150 CE by Herodes Atticus, a Greek aristocrat who became a Roman senator, to honor of his wife Regilla. Placed inside the niches on the walls of this building are the statues that included the statues of Roman Emperors Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Pius, and Herodes Atticus and his family members. At each end of the building, there were two circular Naiskos (small temples).
Ruins of Nymphaion (Nymphaeum) in Olympia, Greece
Naiskos at the Nymphaion
Ruins of Nymphaion
This building served as the water reservoir for the sanctuary during the Roman period. An aqueduct brought the water from a spring a few miles away and stored in a semi-circular basin located in front of the building. The water was then distributed to the rest of the sanctuary through pipes.
The image shows the marble statue of a bull that was a votive offering at the Nymphaion and is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.
Roman Era Statues
During the Roman era, statues of emperors and other important people of the empire were erected in Metroon, which was a temple of the mother goddess. The statues were eventually moved to the Temple of Hera for safe keeping. During the excavation, many of these statues were discovered inside the ruins of the Temple of Hera. These statues were restored and put on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum. Here are some of them:
Agrippina Minor
The statue of Agrippina Minor, who was Emperor Nero’s mother, was discovered on a wall in the Temple of Hera.
Poppaea Sabina
Poppaea Sabina (30 -65 CE) was the second wife of Emperor Nero. This statue was also discovered on a wall in the Temple of Hera.
Emperor Hadrian
The statue of Roman Emperor Hadrian (117 – 138 CE) was discovered in the Temple of Hera and is now on display at the Olympia Archaeological Museum.
As a supporter and admirer of Greece, Emperor Hadrian toured Greece in 124 CE and committed vast resources for numerous engineering projects, including aqueducts, and rebuilding temples and monuments throughout Greece.
Notice the tunic worn by Hadrian in the statue. His finely carved tunic symbolizes fusion of Greek and Roman cultures and represents his world-view.
At the center of the tunic is Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom and war, standing on top of a she-wolf with two sucklings, and flanked by two figures with wings believed to represent Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Above the wolf and to the right of Athena is an Owl and to the left is a snake standing upright. Goddess Athena represents Greece and the she-wolf suckling the twins, Romulus and Remus, symbolizes Rome as it is based on the legend of the founding of Rome.
Copyright © 2017 – 2019 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
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Delphi
Located on the slopes of Mount Parnassos in central Greece, Delphi was best known for its oracle in ancient times. Ancient Greeks treated this site with great reverence as it overlooks a spectacular and awe-inspiring landscape. Delphi was unique in that it was not a city-state but a religious center that was administered by an alliance of Greek city-states. Although Greek city-states fought among themselves, they were united in developing this site.
Fascinated by the mystery of the oracle, people have been flocking to Delphi from all over the world for more than a century. The archaeological site of Delphi, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, provides a glimpse of its past glory. The ruins at this site include the Temple of Apollo, Treasury of the Athenians, a theater and stadium.
Location
History
In ancient times, Greeks considered Delphi as the navel of the earth. According to Greek mythology, Zeus wanted to find the navel of the earth, which in other words the center of the earth. To accomplish this task he sent two eagles, one to the east and the other to the west. The eagles crossed their paths at Delphi making it the navel of the earth. The name Delphi is derived from delphys which in archaic Greek means womb and refers to the womb of the Mother Earth.
The earliest known human settlement in Delphi dates back to the Neolithic period (around 4000 BCE). Later, the Mycenaean civilization established a settlement here in the 2nd millennium BCE.
Delphi was initially famous for the worship of goddess Gaia (Mother Earth), and a temple existed for this goddess at the site of the Temple of Apollo.
Later the cult of Apollo took roots in Delphi replacing the worship of Gaia. This cult grew out of a legend based on Apollo’s slaying of an evil python who was a son of Gaia and was roaming Mount Parnassos creating havoc.
The building of the Sanctuary of Apollo started in the 8th century BCE and reached its peak in the 6th century BCE when it became the most important religious center for Greeks.
Delphi was not a city-state, but a protectorate of Amphictyonia (Amphictyonic League), an alliance of Greek tribes from Sterea (south-central Greece) and Thessaly, which controlled it from 7th to 4th century BCE. The Delphi area was considered autonomous. The Amphictyonic League administered it and chose the priests of the Temple of Apollo.
However, in 356 BCE, an alliance of Phocians, Athenians, and Spartans took control of this sanctuary. Their control was short-lived because King Philip of Macedonia defeated them and handed over the site back to the Amphictyonia alliance. He interfered again in 338 BCE and took control of the site himself.
Roman Period
The Roman Empire took control of this site in 191 BCE, but let the religious ceremonies, including the practice of foretelling by the oracle, to continue. Many high-ranking Romans regularly consulted the oracle. Emperor Hadrian was believed to have visited Delphi and consulted the oracle. However, the Roman general Sulla plundered this site in 86 BCE to finance his wars in Greece.
Decline
Although the practice of foretelling by the oracle continued for a couple of centuries, it gradually started losing its prominence. The final death knell came from the Christians who wanted to end the pagan practices. In 394 BCE, Byzantine Emperor Theodosius issued an edict abolishing the oracle and other pagan practices at Delphi and other sanctuaries all over the Roman empire. Even after the oracle was abolished, Delphi continued to thrive for another three centuries. As Christianity became prominent, Christians started flourishing in this area, and there was even a Basilica. Delphi was eventually abandoned in 6th or 7th century CE.
Pythian Games
Starting 586 BCE, Delphi hosted the Pythian Games every four years to celebrate Apollo’s victory, and it was second only to the Olympic Games in importance. The winner of a game received the laurels picked from the Temple of Apollo. They continued until 424 CE.
Sanctuary of Apollo
The Sanctuary of Apollo includes the Temple of Apollo and the Sacred Way which is the path from the entrance to this temple. Above the temple, there is a theater and a stadium where the Pythian Games were held.
Sacred Way
The Sacred Way was the path leading from the entrance to the Sanctuary of the Apollo to the Temple of the Apollo. This sanctuary was visited by the people from various Greek states to ask questions of the oracle.
Because of the slope, the path was zigzag with a few stairs in some places but was well paved. The Greek city-states competed against each other by building structures on either side of the path. Many city-states had treasury buildings which were used as the place to deposit their votive offerings by their citizens.
Roman Agora
A typical ancient Greek city-state had an agora, which means meeting place in Greek. It is equivalent to a modern city-square or plaza. Because the people gathered in the agora, merchants set up shops in and around the agora to sell a variety of goods and services. Because of these shops, the agora became synonymous with the marketplace.
Once the Romans took control of Delphi, they remodeled the existing agora sometime in the 4th century CE. It became known as the Roman Agora because the remodeled buildings appeared more Roman than Greek.
The Roman Agora is the first stop on the Sacred Way to the Temple of Apollo. Just like any other temples scenes around the world, this is where the pilgrims bought the votive offerings and proceeded to the temple.
Temple of Apollo
The Temple of Apollo was the most important and dominant structure in the Sanctuary of Apollo. According to a Greek myth, this is where the Omphalos (navel of the earth) stone was found.
The Temple of Apollo was built and remodeled many times at the same site. The first temple was built by the legendary architects Trofonios and Agamedes in the 7th century and was destroyed by a fire in 548 BCE. It was replaced in 525 BCE by a bigger temple, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 373 BCE. The third temple was built with almost the same plan and dimensions of its predecessor in 320 BCE.
Oracle of Delphi
Although the oracle existed during the Gaia times, it became prominent after the cult of Apollo gained importance. The Oracle of Apollo was a priestess called Pythia whom the people believed was a mouthpiece of Apollo.
The Oracle sat on a tripod in the inner sanctum of the temple inhaling vapors emanating from a fissure in front of her. According to a myth, the body of the python slain by Apollo fell into this fissure and vapors emanated from the decomposing body of the python. Intoxicated by vapors, Sybil the first oracle went into a trance and answered questions and foretold the future.
Young women from the nearby villages were chosen as priestesses of the temple and one of them would officiate as the oracle. Answers given by the oracle were vague and cryptic, but the priests at the Temple of Apollo interpreted them for the people.
Architecture
The Temple of Apollo is Doric in style with 6 columns on the front and 15 on the sides.
The east pediment depicted a scene when Apollo when he arrived with sister Artemis and mother Leto. The west pediment depicted Gigantomachy, which is the story of the giant’s battle with Olympian gods. The sculptures on the pediment used marble from the island of Paros, and Athenian sculptors Praxias and Androsthenes helped to build them. Only a few fragments of the pediments survived and are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.
The seat of the oracle was located inside the cella (inner chamber) called the adyton which had the statue of Apollo and Omphalos. Like many other Greek temples, an eternal flame burned in the hestia (hearth) located at the rear of the cella.
The walls of the pronaos (vestibule of the temple) had inscriptions of saying attributed to the seven Greek sages. These sayings include “know thyself” and “everything in moderation. “
Omphalos
In the ancient Greek language, the word Omphalos means “naval.” The Omphalos of Delphi refers to a conical-shaped stone that represents the navel of the earth.
According to Pausanias, a Greek historian who visited Delphi in the second century CE, a copy of Omphalos draped with wreaths was kept near the seat of oracle in the inner chamber (adyton) of the Temple of Apollo. Ancient Greeks believed that this is where Apollo killed the evil python, and Omphalos was used to communicate directly with the gods.
Experts believe that many copies of Omphalos existed in the Sanctuary of Apollo. The archaeological site of Delphi has one of the stones, and another one is in the Delphi Archaeological Museum. See the images below.
Omphalos
Dancers of Delphi
Displayed at the Delphi Archaeological Museum, the Dancers of Delphi is a sculpture with three female figures, fragments of which were found on the terraces in the east and northeast part of the Temple of Apollo in 1894. See the images below.
The Dancers of Delphi on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Experts believe that this sculpture was located in the adyton (inner sanctum) of the Temple of Apollo and a part of the column that was holding the Omphalos stone. It was likely that there was a tripod-like structure – probably made of bronze – between the heads of the dances and the Omphalos stone.
Halos
A circular space near the Temple of Apollo.
Altar of Chiots
Built by the people of Aegean island of Chios in the 4th century BCE, the Alter of Chiots became the main altar of the 3rd temple that was rebuilt in 330 BCE.
This monument is located in front of the Temple of Apollo and there is a large open space between the altar and the temple. An ancient staircase leads to this altar and to the temple from the Sacred Way. The altar was made of black marble except for the base and cornice which were made of white marble.
Polygonal Wall
The Polygonal Wall was built as a retaining wall to support the terrace that houses the temple platform. This was introduced during the construction of the second temple in 548 BCE.
Some stones on the Polygonal Wall have detailed inscriptions that were carved sometime in 2nd or 3rd century BCE. These inscriptions mostly mention the emancipation of slaves.
The polygonal walls get their name from the polygonal shapes of the stones that were used to build the wall. Notice that the Polygonal Wall shown in the image has some curved stones in addition to the polygonal stones.
The polygonal walls are considered an engineering marvel because of the way in which they were built. The walls did not make use of mortar or cement because the stones with irregular shapes and sizes that made up the wall fit perfectly.
It appears as though the stones were precisely cut and polished using sophisticated machinery. However, there is no evidence to suggest that such machinery or tools existed in ancient times. In all likelihood, engineers in those days must have devised some ingenious techniques to build such walls using primitive tools.
One of the main advantages of polygonal walls is that they withstand earthquakes very well, as evidenced in Delphi, which suffered numerous earthquakes for the past 2500 years. The polygonal walls in Delphi have some similarities with the polygonal walls used in the structures built by the Incas in Cusco and Saksaywaman. These places are also located on the severe earthquake zone, and the Inca structures seem to have withstood earthquakes very well.
Stoa of the Athenians
The Stoa of the Athenians was built against the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo. This structure was used to house the trophies won by the Athenians in their naval victories. The façade originally had seven columns, only four of them have survived. The roof was believed to be wooden. It was built between 510 and 470 BCE.
Kings of Argos Monument
The city-state of Argos, which had many kings before it became a democracy, built this monument to house the statues of its kings. It is a semi-circular structure with niches to hold bronze statues. While the plan was to house twenty statues, the city-state of Argos was able to erect only ten statues.
Silver Bull
The image shows the statue of a bull reconstructed from the fragments of silver sheets excavated at the Sanctuary of Apollo. It is on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. The base of the statue is located somewhere near the entrance of the Sacred Way.
Naxian Sphinx
Located below the Polygonal Wall of the Temple of Apollo, Naxian Sphinx was a votive offering at the Temple of Apollo by the people of Naxos, an island belonging to the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea. It is a statue of the mythical creature that has the head of a woman, the body of a lion and wings of an eagle. In ancient times, sphinxes were considered guardians of tombs and sanctuaries. The statue was constructed in 560 BCE and was made from Naxian marble. It stood on a free-standing tall Ionic column that was 12 meters high and was an imposing sight at that time.
Marble statue of Naxian Sphinx on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Pillar of King Prusias II of Bithynia
Situated on the northeast entrance of the Temple of Apollo, this monument was erected to honor King Prusias II of Bithynia in 182 BCE. The pillar is 9.7 meters high and the statue of the king on the horseback once stood on top of it.
This monument was an offering to the Temple of Apollo by Bithynia, a kingdom of Thracian tribe Bithyni, and located in the northwest region of Asia Minor (currently in the Anatolia province of Turkey).
Treasuries
Along the Sacred Way, there were many treasuries built by the individual city-states to help their citizens store the votive offerings. They included the Treasury of the Athenians, Treasury of the Siphnians, Treasury of the Boeotians and Treasury of the Sikyonians.
Treasury of the Athenians
The Treasury of the Athenians was built by the city-state of Athens to commemorate the Battle of Marathon in 496 BCE. The purpose of this building was to house the offerings brought by Athenians to be offered the Temple of Apollo.
The site was excavated by the French School of Athens, which reconstructed the monument at the site in 1903-1906. The architectural style of this building is the Doric Order. The metopes on this building are replicas, and the originals (mostly fragments) are on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.
Note: A metophe is a rectangular architectural element that is placed in the space between two sets of vertical tablets on a Doric frieze.
Treasury of the Siphnians
The Treasury of the Siphnians was built around 525 BCE by the city-state of Siphnos, which is also an island in the Aegean Sea. The people of Siphnos accumulated wealth by mining silver and gold. They used tithe of the profits from mining to build this monument.
Just like the Treasure of the Athenians, the purpose of this building was to house the votive offerings brought by the people of Siphnos.
The architecture style of this building is the Ionic Order. It had rich decorations including caryatids (female figures) as supporting columns of structures. See the image below. It had pediments on all the four sides, each of which is adorned with beautiful sculptures depicting stories from Greek mythology.
Votive Offerings
Twins of Argos
The two life-sized marble statues of two brothers – Cleobis and Biton – were votive offerings at the Sanctuary of Apollo by the city of Argos which is located in the Argolis region of Peloponnese.
Both the statues and one of the bases with inscription were found near the Treasury of the Athenians in 1893. They were dated approximately 580 BCE.
Statues of Argos Twins on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum
Charioteer of Delphi
The Charioteer of Delphi is a life-size bronze statue of a young man on display at the Delphi Archaeological Museum. This masterpiece was part of a bigger sculpture containing a chariot, fours horses and two charioteers (one of them is this statue) and was found intact in the Sanctuary of Apollo in 1896.
This was a votive offering to the Temple of Apollo in 474 BCE to honor the victory in a chariot race in the Pythian Games.
Theater
The theater is located above the Temple of Apollo and is well-preserved. It was built sometime in the 4th century BCE and underwent remodeling several times.
During the Pythian Games, this theater hosted music competitions, and during important festivals, it hosted plays and other theatrical performances.
Related Pages
Athens, Olympia, Delphi, Meteora, Greek Islands, Greece
Crete, Minoan Civilization, Mycenaean Civilization
Ephesus
Copyright © 2017 – 2023 by YatrikaOne. All rights reserved.
Athens
A Modern City with a Glorious Past
Known as the birthplace of democracy, Athens is a city with a long and glorious past, which started as early as 1400 BCE as an important center of the Mycenaean civilization. Athens is where western civilization took roots. At its heyday, Athens was the leader of the Greek city-states. It was home to many great philosophers, including Socrates (469 – 399 BCE), Aristotle (427 – 347 BCE) and Plato (384 – 322 BCE). In addition to philosophy, Athens was at the forefront of arts, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.
After Athens declined as the powerhouse of the Greek city-states, it was ruled by Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. Many iconic structures of Greece that include Parthenon are in Athens. The ruins of ancient monuments that are spread all over the city speak of different eras in Athens’ history.
Location
Athens is also called Athina in Greek. It is located on mainland Greece.
Modern Athens
Athens is the capital of Greece and a cosmopolitan city. It also has one of the biggest ports in Europe. The port of Piraeus is part of greater Athens and handles large passenger traffic.
Syntagma Square
This is the central square of Athens where the Greek Parliament building is located.
Parliament Building
The current Greek Parliament building was built in 1836 as the royal palace of King Otto I, the first king of modern Greece.
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is in the front of the Greek Parliament building and guarded by the members of the presidential guards.
National Gardens
The Greek National Gardens is located behind the Parliament building.
Monument to Lord Byron at the National Gardens, Athens
Trees at the National Gardens
Athens Olympics Games
The modern Olympic Games are modeled after the ancient Olympic Games that were held in Olympia for many centuries in ancient times. The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens on April 6, 1896, and held again there in 2004.
Panathenaic Stadium
The Panathenaic Stadium is one of the main attractions of Athens. The original stadium at this site was built in 330 BCE and was remodeled in 144 CE by Herodus Atticus, an Athenian aristocrat who rose became a Roman Senator. This site was excavated in 1869 and a new stadium was reconstructed at the same site.
It was used for the opening and closing ceremonies of the first modern Olympic Games. This stadium was remodeled for the 2004 Olympic Games. This venue was the finishing point for the men’s and women’s Marathon races. In addition, the archery competition was held there. It currently being used for a variety of purposes, including as a venue to transfer the Olympic flame to the host nation.
Views of the City
The city of Athens contains many hills, including Acropolis, Philopappu and Lycabettus hills. The views of Athens with these hills are spectacular.
A view of Athens showing Mount Lycabettus
A view of Athens showing the Philopappos (Philopappu) monument
A view of Athens showing the Hadrian’s Arch and Temple of Olympian Zeus
Views of Athens
Ancient Athens
Acropolis
The Acropolis is a citadel located on a flat-topped rock in the city of Athens. It is about 500 ft above sea level and has a dominating presence in Athens.
The Acropolis was inhabited since the Neolithic period (6th century BCE). It is believed that it had a Mycenaean Megaroon when Athens was part of the Mycenaean Empire.
The Acropolis has ruins of many iconic structures of Greece, including the Parthenon.
Parthenon
The Parthenon is known all over the world as an iconic symbol of ancient Greece and western civilization. It is also regarded as a symbol of democracy.
Located at the center of Acropolis, the Parthenon was built as a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin) by Pericles. It replaced the existing temple of Athena, which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE. The construction of Parthenon began in 447 BCE and ended in 438 BCE. A gold and ivory statue of Athena stood in the cella (inner sanctum) of the temple. In addition to being a temple of goddess Athena, it also served as a treasury.
Destruction
Over the years, the Parthenon was plundered, destroyed and converted many times. The Germanic tribes destroyed inner a part of Parthenon in the 3rd or 4th century. When Athens came under the Roman Empire, the Parthenon was converted to a church in the 6th century by early Christians and was called the church of Holy Wisdom. In the 11th century, it was dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After the Frankish crusaders took over Athens, it became the Church of Notre Dame in 1204. When the Ottoman Empire took control of Athens in 1458, the Parthenon was converted to a mosque and a minaret was added to it.
A large part of Parthenon was destroyed during the bombardment of Athens by Venetians in 1687. During the war with the Republic of Venice, the Ottoman Empire stored ammunition inside the Parthenon. A cannonball fired by the Venetian troops led by the Venetian general Francisco Morosini hit the Parthenon directly igniting the stored ammunition and resulting in the destruction of precious sculptures and part of the structure.
One of the biggest damage to the Parthenon was caused by then English Ambassador to Constantinople, Thomas Bruce (7th Earl of Elgin), who in 1801- 1802 bribed Turkish authorities and sawed away many priceless sculptures and transported them to England. Today most of them are on display in the British Museum in London.
The Parthenon is now a UNESCO World Heritage site and is currently being restored by the Greek Government.
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
This theater was built in 161 CE on the southwest slopes of Acropolis by Herodes Atticus to honor his wife Aspacia Anna Regilla. Herodes Atticus was an aristocratic Athenian who became a Roman Senator. He was responsible for constructing many buildings in Greece and Athens in particular.
The Odeon was used as a music theater and could seat about 5000 people. It was destroyed by a Germanic tribe in 267 CE.
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
The facade of Odeon of Herodes Atticus
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
Erechtheion
Built on a slope on the north side of Acropolis in Athens, Greece, the Erechtheion, a temple built by the famous sculptor Phidias and dedicated to the legendary King Erichthonius, is second only to the Parthenon in importance. Its complex ground plan has porches on the east, north and south sides. The east side porch is dedicated to Athena and the west side to Poseidon. The construction of the original monument began in 420 BCE and ended in 406 BCE. After Roman General Sulla sacked it 80 BCE, it underwent many modifications in the subsequent years.
Porch of the Caryatids
The image shows the south side porch of the Erechtheion. As you can see from the image, the porch has six caryatids, which are replicas. The original caryatids were moved to the museums for safekeeping. Five of them are now in the new Acropolis Museum in Athens, and the sixth, which was taken by Lord Elgin in the 19th century to decorate his mansion in Scotland, is in the British Museum in London.
Note: A Caryatid in Greek architecture is a female sculpture that serves as a column that helps to support a structure.
A recent study suggests that this building was referred to as the Parthenon in ancient texts, instead of the structure we now identify as the Parthenon, because it fits the name and description in those texts. Note that Parthenon means a room for virgins in Greek.
Theatre of Dionysus
As the name suggests, this theater was dedicated to Dionysus, the god of plays and wine. Situated on the foothills of Acropolis, this theater in its current form could seat as many as 17,000 people. The theater was in existence since 6th century BCE but underwent many modifications. It is believed to be the birthplace of Greek tragedy.
Arch of Hadrian (Hadrian’s Gate)
This is a Roman-era monument honoring Roman Emperor Hadrian.
Temple of Olympian Zeus
The Temple of Olympian Zeus is located near the Arch of Hadrian, and as the name suggests it is dedicated to Olympian Zeus. The construction of this temple started in the 6th century BCE but completed much later by the Roman Emperor Hadrian.
The original temple when completed had 104 columns, out which only 16 survived.
Ancient Agora
In ancient Greek cities, the Agora was like the public square where people assembled to hear announcements, engage in political discourses, watch theatrical performances and athletic contests, and participate in religious activities. Because the Agora was a meeting place of people, it also served as a market place.
The Ancient Agora of Athens was the center of Athenian democracy where the political power was exercised. Starting from the 6th century BCE, the Agora gradually expanded to contain numerous public buildings, fountains, temples, and statues and attained the final form in the 2nd century CE. The image below shows the map of the Ancient Agora when it reached this form.
Temple of Hephaestus (Hēphaistos)
Hephaestus is the Greek god of fire and metal works and was worshiped by craftsmen and artisans in ancient Greece, especially in Athens.
The Temple of Hephaestus is one of the well-preserved buildings in Athens. It has two facades, one facing east and the other west. The east facade faces the Agora.
Temple of Hephaestus
Temple of Hephaestus – Interior
Temple of Hephaestus
The temple was converted to the church of St George in the 7th century. This is also the place where the first of king of modern Greece, King Otto, was officially received.
Byzantine Period
As Athens became Christian, the pagan traditions of Athens disappeared. Ancient buildings such as Parthenon were converted to churches and many new churches were built. During this period Athens lost its character, and the grandeur and splendor with which Greeks built their buildings were gone forever.
Church of the Holy Apostles
This church was built in the 11th century but was altered many times. It was restored to the current form in 1956.
Related Pages
Olympia, Delphi, Meteora, Greek Islands, Greece
Minoan Civilization, Mycenaean Civilization
Ephesus
Copyright © 2017 – 2020 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
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Crete
Located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Crete is the biggest island in the Aegean Sea. This is where the Minoan civilization, a mysterious culture that was well ahead of their time, thrived more than 4000 years ago.
Crete has many archaeological sites belonging to the Minoan civilization, including palaces at the following four sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Zakros. The Palace at Knossos is the most famous among them.
Knossos
Knossos is believed to the oldest city in Europe and is the place of the legendary King Minos.
Discovery and Excavation
Although Minos Kalokairinos, a merchant of Heraklion, discovered Knossos in 1878, the credit for bringing world’s attention to Knossos goes to Arthur Evans, a British archaeologist who started excavation in 1900 and continued until 1934 with some interruptions during World War I. He and his team retrieved a large number of artifacts and restored and reconstructed parts of the palace. Some of the reconstruction was the creation of Arthur Evans imagination. Based on his findings, he published a four-volume book work titled The Palace of Minos at Knossos.
The team led by Arthur Evans also discovered tablets inscribed two different scripts, which he named them as Linear A and Linear B. While they appear similar, the contents of the inscriptions belong to two entirely different languages. The language of Linear A is Minoan, which is probably close to Sanskrit, whereas the language of Linear B is Mycenaean, which is close to Greek.
Because of its closeness to Greek, Linear B inscriptions have been mostly deciphered. The Linear B tablets were inscribed later than Linear A tablets. It appears Linear B descended from Linear A and the Mycenaean used it even after the collapse of the Minoan civilization.
Palace at Knossos
The Knossos Palace was a massive complex of structures that included royal quarters, religious halls and storage rooms. There were two versions of palaces at Knossos. An earthquake destroyed the first palace (1900 – 1700 BCE ). A new palace (1700 – 1450 BCE) was then built at the same site.
Knossos had maze-like structures with some buildings having multiple floors. See the images below.
Ruins of the Palace of Knossos
The entire complex was designed with a very sophisticated water management system to supply fresh water to the residential quarters and an underground sewage system to flush out the waste. The water was available even on the upper floors of multi-storied buildings.
Horns of Consecration
As mentioned earlier, the bull played an important role in Minoan religion and everyday life. Many buildings in the Knossos site had the bull horns like structures on the top. Arthur Evans called them “Horns of Consecration.”
The image below shows the reconstructed structure of bull horns.
The Horns of Consecration symbols were found on Minoan seals as well.
Hall with Columns and Frescoes
The ruins have many reconstructed halls with wooden columns painted black and red as shown in the image below. Arthur Evans used archaeological facts and some imagination to reconstruct the hall, and he did so by using modern materials.
Unlike the columns in Greek buildings elsewhere, the Minoan columns are wider at the top and narrower at the bottom.
Mounted on the walls are the copies of the frescoes that were reconstructed by using their fragments found at this site.
Throne Room
The Throne Room is one of the important structures in the Knossos Palace. The purpose of this room is still being debated.
Built into the wall in the middle of the room is a rock throne flanked on each side by the frescoes of Griffins, which are the mythological creatures with the head and wings of an eagle and body and tail of a lion.
A circular tub called lustral basin In front of the throne, which was likely used for ceremonial purposes. Built into the wall next to the throne are the benches that can accommodate about 16 people.
King’s Megaron
Believing that this place was King Minos’s apartment, Arthur Evans named it King’s Megaron. Using some imagination, he reconstructed it using modern materials. He also placed a reconstructed wooden throne inside this structure.
This structure is also called the Hall of the Double Axes because of the double-axe symbols found engraved on the walls of a well inside this structure.
Kings’ Megaron
Queen’s Megaron
The Queen’s Megaron was assumed by Arthur Evans to be the queen’s apartment, but there is no archaeological evidence to prove it. The suite has a hall with the famous Dolphins fresco, bathroom, toilet, and small well.
Bastion of the Bull
Located near the northern entrance, Bastion of the Bull is yet another structure reconstructed by Arthur Evans by using his imagination. As you can see in the image below, the famous Charging Bull fresco is engraved on its wall.
Theater Area
This where the visitors to the palace were received. The Theater Area is also connected to a road called Royal Road.
Arts
The Minoan art includes frescoes, pottery and bronze sculptures.
Frescoes
Beautiful and colorful frescoes decorated the walls of the Minoan palaces and houses. They followed a certain color code, perhaps borrowed from the Egyptians. Some of the codes are, red for men, white for women, yellow for gold.
The images below show the replicated frescoes displayed at the ruins of the Knossos Palace.
Frescoes on display at the Palace of Knossos
Prince of the Lilies Fresco
This is one of the well-known Minoan fresco and believed to represent the Priest-King of Knossos. It was reconstructed from the fragments retrieved from the archaeological site. The duplicate fresco is on display at the Corridor of Procession in the Knossos Palace.
Bull Leaping Fresco
The Bull-Leaping fresco depicts a dangerous game of leaping over a bull, and it was played by both men and women. In the image shown below, the person who leaps over the bull is believed to be a man and the persons standing in the front and back of the bull are believed to be women. The gender of the players is inferred from the color code used by the painters, i.e., light color for women and brown for men.
It appears that the game of Bull Leaping was important to the Minoan culture, and the game could have been ceremonial.
Pottery
Although smaller pots were discovered in the Minoan archaeological sites, Minoans were known for their giant jars called Pithoi.
Pithoi Jars
Pithoi jars were likely used as storage devices for liquids, grains, dried fish and olives. Several hundreds of them were found in the ruins at Knossos. Because of their size, they were typically placed on the ground floors. Pithois are differentiated based on their size, the number of handles and decoration on the outer surface.
Arthur Evans found a number of giant Pithoi jars in one place, which he named it “The Magazines of Giant Pithoi.” See the images below.
Related Pages
Minoan Civilization, Mycenaean Civilization, Athens, Olympia, Delphi, Meteora, Greek Islands, Greece
Copyright © 2017 – 2023 by YatrikaOne. All rights reserved.
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Greek Islands
The blue waters of the Aegean Sea are home to a large number of islands belonging to Greece. Only 227 among them are inhabited. Each inhabited island has its own legend, history, and culture. Crete, which was home to the Minoan civilization, is the largest and Santorini is the most popular.
Mykonos
The island of Mykonos belongs to the Cyclades group of the islands in the Aegean Sea. According to a legend, the island was formed by the bodies of giants petrified after Hercules killed them. The island was named after the grandson of Apollo. Chora is the main city and also a major tourist attraction. Windmills dot the island and many of them are in Chora.
Mykonos water front and Little Venice
Windmills of Mykonos
Island of Mykonos
The beautiful coastline of Mykonos makes it worthwhile to watch the sunset.
Because of its spectacular landscape, the moonlit night sky at Mykonos is beautiful and serene.
Santorini
The island of Santorini is also part of the Cyclades and one of the most visited places in Greece. What we see now is the remnants of Thera, a bigger island that was the center of a massive volcanic eruption happened 3600 years ago during the height of Minoan civilization.
Although Fira is the biggest town in Santorini, the Village of Oia is the most scenic and a photographer’s paradise.
As you can see from the map below, the outline formed by the archipelago of Santorini has the shape of a caldera.
Oia Village
Located on the northwest corner of Santorini, the Village of Oia is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world. It is about 500 feet above sea level.
The Oia village is famous for the panoramic view of the steep cliffs that were part of the volcanic caldera which appears to rise from the sea. As you can see from the images below, most of the buildings in this village are built on the slopes of the caldera and are painted with white and some of them have blue domes.
Scenic Oia village of Santorini
Castle of Agios Nikolaos
Spinning Wheel of Oia Village
Scenic Oia village
Scenic Oia village
Scenic Oia Village
Scenic views from Oia Village
The Oia village is also known for the traditional cave houses, which were built on the slopes of the caldera over the past few centuries by the crews of the ships and poor families who could not afford houses on the top of the cliff.
They are typically single room residential units built by carving out the earth from on the slopes. Because of the igneous rocks that made up the caldera, these houses were warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer. Now some of these houses are converted into vacation homes for tourists.
Sunset
The sunset at the Oia Village is spectacular and a photographer’s dream.
Sunset at Oia Village, Santorini
Sunset at Oia Village, Santorini
Sunset as seen from the Oia Village
Wine
Santorini is also famous for its wine called Vin Santo and is well -known to wine lovers all over the world. The grape vines in Santorini are coiled like a basket and kept low on the ground in order to avoid the strong winds coming from the ocean.
The wine-making tradition in Santorini dates back thousands of years. Grapes grown on the soil contain volcanic ash and the Mediterranean climate gives the wine a distinct taste.
Patmos
Known in the Christian world as the island of Apocalypse, Patmos is where St. John the Evangelist spent later part of his life and wrote the Book of Revelations living in a cave.
Being a Disciple of Jesus and the one who wrote one of the four gospels, St John said to have traveled to Ephesus and preached the gospel there in the Great Theater. Because of his evangelization activities, the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Domitian (81-96 CE) banished him to Patmos.
After the death of Domitian, St. John was released from exile and reported to have returned to Ephesus. Unlike the other Apostles of Jesus who were all martyred, St. John died a natural death at the ripe age of 92. It is believed that he died in Ephesus.
Monastery of St. John the Theologian
The cave where St. John lived and wrote The Book of Revelations is a big tourist attraction. The Monastery of St. John the Theologian was built in the 11th century around this cave.
Frescoes on the walls of Monastery of St. John the Theologian
Monastery of St. John the Theologian – A finely-carved wooden door
Monastery of St. John the Theologian
Monastery of St. John the Theologian
Scenic View
Just like the other islands in the Aegean Sea, Patmos is very scenic and a popular tourist attraction.
A panoramic view
A panoramic view from the Island of Patmos
Island of Patmos as seen from the sea
Scenic views around the island of Patmos
Crete
See Crete
Copyright © 2017 – 2019 by Lawrence Rodrigues. All rights reserved.
